INTRODUCTION

DISCOVERY

Many historical discoveries come from finding new relics or documents, or cracking the code to translate an ancient language. Another kind of discovery in historical understanding occurs when preconceptions or lack of awareness are replaced by new appreciation and understanding. In recent years, the achievements of Islamic cultures during Islam’s ‘golden age’ (8th–15th centuries) are increasingly being recognized and touted in media and educational forums. Articles and documentaries highlight the great debt the world owes to scientific, mathematical, medical, and engineering discoveries born out of the cultural fusion and intellectual ferment of the Islamic world, particularly during the peak of the ‘Abbasid Caliphate.

Several factors contributed to this vibrant era. The breadth of the Islamic world ruled under one Caliphate during this era included cultures and thinkers from the Atlantic Ocean to India. Many shared the Islamic faith and thus familiarity with the Arabic language, which facilitated interchange commerce and ideas. Additionally, faith based emphases on textual analysis in the study of the Qur’an, Hadith, the Sunna, and Shari’a law fostered societal literacy and scholarly pursuits. Further, under ‘Abbasid Caliphs, there was an explicit focus on translating great works from the many cultures under Muslim rule. Islamic achievements thus incorporated insights from ancient Greece, Rome, Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia, India and many other cultures.

Whether due to religious bias, centuries of religious tensions between the Christian and Muslim worlds, or parochial pride in Western achievements, many remarkable innovators of the Medieval Islamic world have traditionally been ignored. In some cases, Western thinkers were credited as the founders of scientific truths and methods discovered earlier during this Islamic golden age. But today influential Islamic thinkers are increasingly being acknowledged. Examples include the physician Ibn al-Nafis, who accurately described pulmonary circulation centuries before William Harvey. Abu Al Qasim Al Zahrawi (known in the West as Albucasis) is recognized as the father of modern surgery. His great work Al-Taṣrīf (“The Method”) was a massive, 1,500 page, 30-volume illustrated medical encyclopedia written around 1000 CE. It documented a vast array of medical procedures and treatments and was used by Europeans as a reference for over five centuries leading up to the Scientific Revolution. Al Zahrawi invented, and was the first to use, medical instruments such as the syringe, bone saw, surgical hook and needle, surgical scissors, and forceps. He carried out complicated surgeries, and pioneered the use of catgut for sutures hundreds of years before the European physician often given credit for this innovation. Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizm, a Persian mathematician, created the field of algebra by merging insights from Greek and Hindu mathematics. Ibn al-Haytham, today considered one of the greatest scientists of the Medieval era, conducted experiments into light and vision, identifying scientific truths of reflection and refraction that are still today the foundation of optics and photography.

The first hospital, which combined care for the ill with physicians’ education, was founded in Cairo in the 9th century. Islamic hospitals were open to all regardless of wealth, reflecting the Muslim tradition of caring for the poor. Not surprisingly, given these and many other discoveries, “(m)any scientific words in English derive from Arabic: alchemy, algebra, alkaline, antimony, chemistry, elixir, zero, alcohol, algorithm, almanac, azimuth, cipher, sine, zenith” (The Met. n.d.),

Though long overdue, greater appreciation of these and other Islamic scientists and inventions is more visible in today’s contemporary articles, documentaries and exhibits recounting achievements of this Islamic golden age. In 2010, for example, the London Science Museum hosted an exhibition titled “1001 Inventions: Discover the Muslim Heritage in Our World”, promoting greater awareness of Muslim contributions in science and technology. The exhibit was the most successful in the museum’s history, drawing over 400,000 visitors in 2010.

OVERVIEW

The Islamic religion emerged in the Arabian peninsula in the early 7th century CE, then rapidly spread throughout the Near East, Mediterranean, Asia and beyond. The term ‘Islamic world’ refers to adherents of the religion, a faith directly rooted in the monotheistic traditions of Judaism and Christianity. Islam is today one of the most widespread and fastest growing world religions with an estimated 1.6 billion Muslims representing 23% of the total global population. Islam was born in Arabia and clearly reflects its Arabic roots, but millions of Muslims today are not Arab. In fact, the country with the highest number of Muslims is Indonesia.

As the Islamic religion spread, this belief system profoundly impacted other aspects of societies such as art, architecture, law, science, scholarship and language. Since Arabic is the language of the Qur’an, the holy book of Islam, the Arabic language spread across the globe along with the religion. In many countries where Islam took root, Arabic was and continues to be used by practicing Muslims alongside native languages. Arabic terms were integrated into local languages, resulting in new vocabularies. The spread of Arabic by Muslims across continents enabled the same cross-cultural communications the Latin language fostered in the Christian West, the Greek language facilitated during the Hellenistic age, and the Chinese written script enabled in East and Southeast Asia. The story of the Islamic religion, its emergence and spread during following centuries, is not just a study of religious beliefs but of Islamic influences on societal patterns and structures. It is also a study of evolving political systems and empires deeply influenced by Islamic beliefs and culture.

PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA

The story of Islam begins in Arabia, situated in the Middle East. Academics debate about the geographical boundaries of the Middle East but most agree this region encompasses Persia, Mesopotamia, the Levant, Asia Minor, and the Arabian Peninsula. The Middle East straddles three continents: Asia, Africa, and Europe. This strategic location promoted cultural interchange and diffusion, facilitating the spread of peoples, ideas, and goods along overland and maritime trade routes. The arid climate of this region directly influenced settlement patterns since productive agriculture was only possible in areas receiving reliable water from rainfall, or underground sources. Much of the Arabian peninsula was arid or semi-arid, capable only of supporting the nomadic pastoral lifestyle of Bedouin tribes. Only in coastal mountains did water supplies sustain agriculture, enabling the rise of cities such as Mecca and Yathrib as well as settlements in what is today Yemen.

Arabs who inhabited the pre-Islamic Arabian Peninsula shared socio-linguistic commonalities with other neighboring Semitic-speaking peoples such as Hebrews, Assyrians, Arameans, and the Amhara of Ethiopia. Most of Arabia’s population prior to the rise of Islam resided in the south of the peninsula (modern day Yemen) where they practiced terraced agriculture and herded domestic animals. To the north, along the highland spine of western Arabia on the shores of the Red Sea, was another center for settlement; this was the Hejaz, a prominent cultural and economic region.

The Hejaz, the most arable part of the Arabian Peninsula north of Yemen, was distinguished by irrigated agriculture that produced fruit trees and essential grains. Local traders exported agricultural products to Syria in return for crucial imports like textiles and olive oil. The region benefited from robust trade but there were challenges. Piracy on the Red Sea led some merchants to divert trade overland and many goods journeyed up the Red Sea Rift to the eastern Mediterranean. Caravans of camels carried goods from the south and Hejaz to the Levant, the crossroads region of the Eastern Mediterranean stretching from Syria to Egypt. Most caravans stopped in Mecca, the halfway point up the spine of the peninsula, bringing much needed wealth and tax revenue to the city.

Even before the emergence of Islam, the city of Mecca was the holiest place in the peninsula, home to the sacred site of the Ka’ba (Ka’aba). The Ka’ba contained a sacred black stone believed by Arabs to have come from the heavens. This stone was surrounded by statues of Arab deities closely associated with the natural world, reflecting their animistic connection to their natural surroundings prior to the 7th century CE. To maintain protection of gods and spirits, Arabs worshiped and made sacrifices to these deities, with rituals conducted by shaman (holy men). So important was the Ka‘ba to Arab polytheistic tribes, they negotiated a truce lasting one month every year to allow safe pilgrimage of the faithful to the shrine.

The Arabs domesticated the camel sometime between 3000 and 1000 BCE. Caravan operators became reliant on these useful dromedaries, so adept at crossing the region’s massive deserts. Capable of drinking 100 liters of water in mere minutes, they could endure days of travel without needing to replenish themselves. Additionally, camels instinctively remembered locations of important, life-sustaining oases. So important were these beasts of burden that tribes that controlled the camels, controlled the trade.

Life in the Arabian Peninsula centered around the tribe, usually consisting of a group of relatives claiming a shared ancestry. In the absence of formal government, tribes offered physical security to individual members. Tribes mitigated violence and theft through a shared understanding  retribution for such acts would follow swiftly. Tribes competed with each other over increasingly scarce resources to provide for the economic needs of their individual members. Tribal traditions included the poetic concept of muruwah, the notion of the ideal tribal man. This Arabian definition of chivalric obligations focused on bravery, patience, persistence in revenge, generosity, hospitality, and protection of the poor and weak. Tribal traditions, however, began breaking down prior to the rise of Islam; no longer were dominant members of society consistently adhering to the principles set forth in muruwah.

ISLAM

Muhammad

Muhammad (c.570–632) was born in the city of Mecca during this period of cultural transition. Muhammad’s father, ‘Abdallah, was a member of the Hashemite Clan, a less prosperous branch of the Quraysh Tribe. ‘Abdullah died just prior to his son’s birth, and Muhammad’s mother passed away when he was just six years old. Orphaned at such a young age, his tribe intervened to ensure Muhammad’s survival. His uncle, Abu Thalib, leader of the Hashemite Clan and an important member of the Quraysh Tribe, took custody of the young boy. In his youth, Muhammad found employment in the regional caravan trade as a herder and driver of camels. He cultivated his reputation as an empathetic, honest man, earning the respect of many Meccans. He soon attracted the attention of a wealthy merchant, Khadija, who hired Muhammad to manage her caravans and they were later married. This marriage afforded Muhammad financial security, allowing him to pursue his desired focus on religious meditation.

Muhammad was critical about the direction society was taking, concerned ideals of muruwah were no longer being upheld. He believed some of the influential members of society, such as the merchant elite of the Quraysh Tribe, were no longer respecting traditional responsibilities to weaker members of society. Muhammad had contact with Christians and Jews living in the peninsula and traveled to Christian Syria while working in the caravan trade, thus he was aware of Christian stories and figures. In 610 CE, Muhammad had an experience he interpreted as the Angel Gabriel appearing to him in a cave near Mecca. The Angel Gabriel instructed him to “recite,” and Muhammad then spoke the divine word of God. These messages Muhammad believed he received from Allah (God) through the Angel Gabriel are the foundational ideas and beliefs of the Islamic religion. These revelations became the Qur’an. The Qur’an as recited or written in Arabic is believed by Muslims to be the sacred, direct word of Allah, not the words of Muhammad or any other human. Beginning in 610 CE and until his death in 632 CE, Muhammad continued to receive what he interpreted as revelations from Allah. Declaring his status as a prophet of Allah, he spread these messages, founding the religion of Islam. During his lifetime, the messages of the Qur’an were passed on orally. Only in 651 CE, almost 20 years after his death, was the Qur’an first recorded in written form.

Religious Beliefs

Islam grew out of the Judeo-Christian tradition, a link that helped legitimize the new religion. Islam holds much in common with Judaism and Christianity. Muslims believe in the same God as the Jewish and Christian faiths. For Muslims, earlier prophets and key figures from Judaic and Christian history, are honored as messengers of Allah. The Qur’an contains stories telling how Allah chose messengers (prophets) throughout the ages to teach the truth of one true god and to impart divine teachings about Allah’s will and moral laws. Because people failed to properly maintain their relationship with Allah, messages were corrupted over time, thus Allah continued to convey messages through several prophets. The Qur’an identifies Abraham as the first revered prophet chosen by Allah, connecting Islam to Judaism through a shared reverence for Abraham. Other Jewish prophets whose stories are told in the Qur’an include Job, David, Joseph and Moses. The Qur’an also identifies Jesus of Nazareth as a prophet of God. Jesus is described in the Qur’an as an esteemed, respected figure in Islam. He is portrayed not as the son of God but as a human messenger chosen to convey God’s messages. John the Baptist and Mary are also Christian figures respectfully described in the Qur’an; Mary is in fact a highly revered figure in Islamic tradition.

Muslims categorized Jews and Christians as People of the Book, those whose faith is based on a revealed scripture. Muslims believe the People of the Book received the word of Allah from earlier prophets but those messages became distorted over time. Thus Allah sent the Angel Gabriel to deliver a message to Muhammad, identified as the Seal of the Prophets, or Khatam an-Nabiyyin. Muslims believe Muhammad’s revelations represent Allah’s final messages. Muhammad never claimed to be founding a new religion, he was serving as the last in a long line of Allah’s messengers, beginning with the Hebrew prophets and including Jesus of Nazareth. Muslims believe the revelations Muhammad received represented the pure, unadulterated and – critically – final version of Allah’s messages.

The Prophet Muhammad’s followers memorized these revelations and years after his death, recorded them in writing in the form of the Qur’an. In addition to the Qur’an, two other texts emerged to help guide and inform Muslims on proper behavior: the Hadith, a collection of traditions and precedents established by Muhammad, and the Sunna, collected teachings of the Prophet not found in the Qur’an. These works convey and interpret the life of the Prophet Muhammad. When a topic is not addressed in the Qur’an, the precedent of the Prophet Muhammad’s life as preserved in these texts – his sayings and deeds, how he lived his life – helps establish what is religiously acceptable for a Muslim. Over the centuries Islamic authorities interpreting these texts developed a body of influential Islamic law known as Sharia (sharīʿah) law.

Knowledge contained in these holy texts represented a great responsibility, as people were held to a high standard of behavior based on obedience, or submission, to Allah’s will. The word Islam means submission in Arabic; a Muslim is one who submits to Allah. Submission and faith are demonstrated through performance of the Five Pillars of Islam. Derived from a Hadith, the Five Pillars are essential, obligatory actions that serve as the foundation of the faith and community.

The first pillar, known as the witness, or shahada, is a profession of faith in which believers declare that “There is no God but God, and Muhammad is His messenger.” Prayer, also called salat, is the second pillar of Islam. Islam expects faithful Muslims to pray five times a day, kneeling towards Mecca, at dawn, noon, afternoon, sunset, and evening. One should perform ritual ablutions prior to prayers, to pray before Allah symbolically clean and pure. The third pillar is almsgiving, or zakat in Arabic. Islam requires Muslims to contribute a portion of their wealth to the upkeep of the Islamic community. This portion, or tithe, was based on the amount of one’s wealth; the rich should contribute more than the poor. Fasting, or sawm, is the fourth pillar of Islam and takes place during Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar. For the duration of Ramadan, believers consume neither food nor drink from dawn to dusk. The fifth and final pillar of Islam is pilgrimage, or hajj. Islam expects all able-bodied Muslims to make a journey to Mecca at least once in their lifetime. There are many rituals associated with carrying out the pilgrimage, culminating by reaching and circling the Ka’ba. The hajj is a time for a devout Muslim pilgrim to display religious purity, equality and humility before Allah. In Muhammad’s time, this journey took place on foot, with the rich walking alongside the poor to display humility and equality before Allah. By the time of Muhammad’s death, abiding by these five pillars was established as the duty of all Muslims. As Islam spread, shared devotion to living by the sacred messages of the Qur’an and fulfilling the five pillars created a global Islamic community that cut across regions, languages and cultures.

The Hijira

In 613 CE, the Prophet Muhammad began preaching his strict brand of monotheism by reciting the Qur’an, with his followers memorizing his recitations. The messages he conveyed directly challenged the status quo in many respects. Muhammad spoke out against pagan gods, challenging established polytheistic beliefs in tribal deities as well as jinns, or nature spirits. As custodians of the Ka‘ba, which housed the sacred stone and traditional Arabian religious images, the Umayyad Clan augmented their income by collecting revenue from Arabs making the traditional pilgrimage to Mecca. Muhammad’s teachings threatened that income. Qur’anic teachings that called for the powerful to take care of the weak resonated with many who were economically and socially marginalized, challenging the existing leadership of society. The most powerful branch of the Quraysh Tribe, the Umayyads, had in the view of critics enriched themselves from the lucrative caravan trade while ignoring the privations of the needy.

Muhammad presented an entirely new social/political world view to Arabs of Islam as a binding force, replacing divisive, parochial tribal solidarity or ‘asabiyah with the concept of the umma – a community based on a shared faith. Muhammad emphasized the unity of the umma over traditional tribal and regional divisions. According to Muhammad’s teachings, only one important division existed – the divide between Muslims and non-Muslims. The only meaningful conflict in the world based on this new worldview was that between the House or Abode of Islam (Dar-al Islam) and the House or Abode of War (Dar-al Harb.) One of the obligations of a Muslim was to bring those living in the House of War (non-Muslims) into the House of Islam. Islam, like Christianity, was and is a proselytizing religion, emphasizing the spread of the faith.

This new Muslim faith threatened to disrupt the existing social and economic equilibrium in the Arab world. The Prophet’s message jeopardized the standing of elite members of society. Tensions grew and conflict spilled into the streets of Mecca. As Muhammad’s followers grew in number, they encountered more opposition from the Umayyad Clan. To avoid this conflict, some Muslims fled to the Kingdom of Aksum in Ethiopia, where they received protection under the Christian King Armah.

Muhammad’s wife Khadija died in 619 CE. With her death, Muhammad lost his source of emotional support. That same year, the Prophet’s uncle Abu Thalib passed away. Already bereaved, Muhammad now suffered the loss of his personal protector in the Quraysh Tribe. Cut off from the tribal leadership and accused of stirring religious tensions, Muhammad was more vulnerable to Umayyad harassment in Mecca. While Muhammad endured harsh reprisals from the Umayyads for his public preaching, a conflict was boiling in Yathrib (later called Medina), located a few days’ travel north of Mecca. Some individuals from Medina traveled to Mecca in 620 CE where they heard the Prophet preach and converted to Islam. Impressed by his reputation as an honest and spiritual man, leaders of Medina invited Muhammad to their city in 622 CE to act as mediator to halt tribal in-fighting over a shared oasis.

Faced with intensifying opposition in Mecca, Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina in 622 CE, the seminal event known as the hijra. This year and event marks the first year of the Islamic calendar since the spread of Islam accelerated following this move. The Prophet rapidly converted many of Yathrib’s inhabitants to Islam and these new Muslims came to be identified as the ansar, meaning “helpers.” Together with the muhajirun (fellow Muslims who fled with Muhammad to Medina), the ansar helped the Prophet institutionalize the religion of Islam, developing the umma, a community of believers, that came to dominate the social and political life of Medina.

Muhammad assumed several roles in Medina. First and foremost, he was the final Prophet of Islam and thus religious leader of the growing Muslim community. He also was the political leader of the Muslim umma. Additionally, Muhammad served as a judicial authority, using the Qur’an as the basis of law and legal decisions. The Prophet was also a legislator, working with the majlis, or council of elders, to enact laws; he governed as a theocrat, with no separation of church and state. Finally, Muhammad was a military leader who ensured a protected political state for Muslims.

THE SPREAD OF ISLAM

Expansion Under Muhammad

A major concern of Muhammad’s leadership was how Muslims could contribute to the Medinan economy. He received a revelation during this period that suggested Muslims raid caravans coming north out of Mecca. (Qur’an 22:39) In 624 CE, the Medinans engaged a caravan of Meccans along a popular trade route. In the ensuing Battle of Badr, named after a nearby oasis, 300 Muslims defeated nearly 1000 Meccans and seized their caravan. They considered their signal victory a sign from Allah that he was on their side. Their success enhanced the prestige of Islam and Muhammad in the eyes of Arab tribes in the peninsula.

Unwilling to cede control of the lucrative caravan trade to the upstart Muslims of Medina, the Umayyads confronted them in 625 CE in the Battle of Uhud. While the Meccans scored some gains, they were unable to take Medina. The final confrontation between forces of Mecca and Medina took place in 627 CE at the Battle of the Trench, or khandaq in Arabic; this battle ended in another triumph for the Muslims. In 628 CE, the Umayyads sent a delegation of Meccans to sue for peace. The resulting Treaty of Hudaybiyyah secured official tolerance of Islam and allowed Muslims to return to Mecca the following year, free from persecution.

Then in 630 CE, the Prophet Muhammad advanced on the city of Mecca with an army of some 10,000 Muslims. Encountering only limited resistance, Muslim forces took control of the city, the first success of Islamic military expansion. Muhammad cleared the Ka’ba (also spelled Qa’ba) of its reported 360 religious images and dedicated this holy site to Allah, attributing a sacred importance to the Ka’ba based on Islamic interpretation. The prestige of the Muslims increased with their victory over the Meccans. As tribes learned of this triumph, they sent delegations to forge alliances with the Prophet.

By the time Muhammad passed away in 632 CE, most of Arabia had converted to Islam. The religion provided the Muslims in Arabia with a new ‘asabiyah, or social solidarity, and a unity of purpose. Muhammad had not only established Islam as the dominant religious, social and political force in the Arabian peninsula, but created a basis for unifying Arabs into a potent force ready to transform history.

Expansion Under the Caliphs

Following Muhammad’s death in 632 CE, several religious and political questions needed to be resolved. In the absence of the Prophet, Muslim leaders interpreted religious texts to develop a body of sharia law. Over time, sharia law became the foundation Islamic principles regulating daily life: economics, politics, family life, and society. The possibility of differing interpretations of the law led to the development of several schools of Islamic jurisprudence.

Muhammad did not formally appoint a successor, a caliph or khalifa in Arabic, so there was no clear replacement to lead the Muslim community at the time of his death. The umma divided into three groups, each striving to appoint their own successor. Emerging as a vocal leader, ‘Umar, one of Muhammad’s closest companions, convinced the majlis, or elders of the community, to elect Abu Bakr as Caliph (successor of the prophet Muhammad) by consensus as a compromise candidate. Abu Bakr was Muhammad’s closest friend, and Muhammad’s marriage of political alliance to ‘A’isha, Abu Bakr’s daughter, further solidified their relationship.

The election of Abu Bakr (632–634 CE) brought much-needed stability and governmental leadership to the community of Muslims. As Caliph, Abu Bakr held together the Arab Muslim community, cementing his authority among the Arabian tribes. He prevented rebellious Muslim tribes from reverting to worship of their traditional tribal gods. When Abu Bakr died in 634 CE, the majlis chose ‘Umar (634 – 644 CE), a close friend of Abu Bakr, as the next Caliph. A dynamic and uncompromising military leader, ‘Umar recognized the necessity of expansion northward to subdue threats of raiding nomads, many of which remained a law unto themselves. He used the cohesive element of war to expand Islam as well as unite the Muslim community against unbelievers. ‘Umar understood the importance of plunder to secure loyal forces in support of the nascent caliphate. Troops received four-fifths of the loot from conquest; the remainder of the revenue went to the Caliph to be dispersed amongst the neediest members in the Islamic community.

The use of war to unite the community might seem to imply use of the term jihad but this term can be misleading. The Arabic term jihad does not translate as war; it refers to a “struggle,” usually against spiritual impurity. This interpretation emphasizes a spiritual struggle, often known as “greater jihad”. The “lesser jihad” refers to the emphasis on the martial struggle of Muslims of Dar al-Islam (Abode of Islam) against unbelievers of the Dar al-Harb (Abode of War). The use of violence to protect or expand Islam is only one competing interpretation of the term jihad. Notably, Muhammad did not consider jihad important enough to make it one of the pillars of Islam.

Between 630-751 CE, Islamic Arab forces and their allies swept across the Mediterranean and Near Eastern world, achieving remarkable successes. To the West, Islamic troops crossed the rim of North Africa, traveled through Gibraltar and into Europe, ultimately occupying parts of Spain and Portugal. Crossing the Pyrenees into the south of France, Islamic forces were finally halted at the Battle of Tours in 732 by Frankish tribal forces led by Charles Martel. The Frankish victory at the Battle of Tours in 733 meant northern territories of Europe remained dominantly Christian, while Islamic control and influence remained firmly established in the southern half of the Mediterranean.

Heading East, Islamic troops conquered territories to the North and East, including Syria, Mesopotamia (Iraq), Persia (Iran) and extended East to modern day Afghanistan and the Indus River (Pakistan). Driving north into Central Asia, Islamic armies were finally halted at the Battle of Talas River by Chinese forces in 751 CE. Remarkably, within a century and a half, Arab leaders had established themselves as successful and impressive empire builders controlling territory from the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts deep into Central Asia. What they brought with them was the religion and culture of Islam.

Several factors enabled these successes. Though outnumbered, Muslim armies successfully defeated two long-standing empires (Persian and Byzantine) in the span of just a few decades. Byzantine and Persian empires were severely weakened by near-continuous fighting dating back decades and suffered from the fatigue of war. Islamic armies were able to exploit the vulnerabilities of these two exhausted empires.

Muslim military strategies were also a key factor. While Byzantine forces adopted a defensive stance on the battlefield, the Arabs employed more aggressive tactics, making use of mobile light cavalry against heavily armored enemy troops. Arabs populated garrison cities on the frontier in conquered regions. These military settlements provided security, served as logistical bases, and discouraged Muslim troops from mingling with the locals, which prevented troops from being assimilated into conquered communities and also prevented soldiers from disturbing the peace. Fustat in Egypt, and Kufa and Basra in Iraq, were the largest of these bases; from these sites, the Arabs expanded and consolidated their hold over frontiers.

Religion was a powerful impetus for expansion. Fearing the threat internal tribal divisions could pose to the early Islamic state, ‘Umar united the Muslims through a common faith and directed them against a common enemy. Dedicated to expanding the House of Islam, the concept of jihad was used to unify the Islamic community against a foreign foe. Simple economics was another motivating factor. Muslim rulers applied the jizya, an annual tax levied on non-Muslims subjects in newly-conquered lands. While the practice of dividing the spoils of war amongst the soldiers continued under ‘Umar, he also started offering salaries to his troops, with salaries based on length of service. Money derived from conquest fueled the growth of the caliphate as soldiers now earned money for their service.

Muslim leaders effectively exploited internal divisions of targeted societies. For example in Egypt, the Coptic Christian majority and large Jewish minority in Alexandria suffered under the rule of an oppressive Greek Orthodox Christian minority, but gained autonomy and toleration under the Islamic state. In Syria, a Christian minority called the Syrian Orthodox Church, or Jacobites, collaborated with the Muslims and hastened collapse of the Byzantines. All these factors enabled the remarkable success of the early Islamic state to expand exponentially.

Effects of Empire

Spread of Islam

Expansion resulted in the transplantation of the Islamic religion and culture. In some instances, conquered subjects were forced to convert, in particular those who worshiped many deities; the fervent monotheism of Islam allowed for no tolerance of polytheistic beliefs. For many the conversion to Islam took place peacefully, voluntarily and over time as people under Arab control or trading with the Arab Empire were exposed to and slowly adopted this religion. They were attracted to Islam’s compelling promises of Heaven, belief in a compassionate god, and structured moral laws that framed and ordered the society. Islam spread far past the borders of the territorial Arab empire, filtering into neighboring regions through trade connections. For centuries, Islamic leaders controlled only the North African coast yet Islam spread deeper inland into Saharan Africa through trading connections.

For Christians and Jews living in conquered territories, there was often a relative degree of tolerance. Deemed People of the Book, these groups were monotheistic and followed teachings of earlier, revered prophets described in the Qur’an. Jews and Christians were frequently – though not always – treated as dhimmi, protected people. But protected peoples were still legally second-class citizens compared to Muslims and often paid high taxes for the privilege of maintaining their religions.

Arabic, the language of the Prophet Muhammad and the Qur’an, spread with the religion and Arab armies. Arabic became a shared language throughout the expanding Islamic world, facilitating communication across an increasingly global network of Muslim communities. Arabic became integrally linked to the practice of Islam across the globe. Additionally, artistic traditions were profoundly influenced. Because there are religious strictures against images and idolatry, Islamic art is based on designs and use of writing, often from the Qur’an. Numerous regions and societies conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries were thus tied together by Arabic and Islamic influences. This inter-connected Islamic world resulted in the vibrant interchange of cultures, producing not just dynamic trade but impressive achievements in scholarship and intellectual pursuits.

Political Succession

While enjoying military successes, the problems of political succession continued. In 644, an Iranian captive from the Persian campaign stabbed Caliph ‘Umar to death. His successor, ‘Uthman (644–656), was an elderly man from the Umayyad Clan who won a contentious election over ‘Ali. ‘Ali possessed numerous legitimizing bona fides and enjoyed fervent support. Not only was he the son of Muhammad’s early protector, Abu Thalib, he was also the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law. Married to Muhammad’s daughter Fatima, they had two sons, the Prophet’s grandsons Hasan and Husayn. ‘Ali also had a widespread reputation as a virtuous Muslim. One of the first converts to Islam, he journeyed with Muhammad on most of his expeditions and fought against the Meccans. ‘Ali served as a valued advisor to the early caliphs on questions of dogma.

Two factions formed over ‘Uthman’s divisive succession, initiating an influential division within Islam. One faction believed ‘Ali should inherit the mantle of Islam, referring to traditions suggesting Muhammad proclaimed ‘Ali should be his successor. This group later adopted the Shia appellation (meaning ‘partisans of ‘Ali), this was the foundation of the Shi’ite Islamic faction. The other faction, led by the Umayyads, asserted the appointment of successors should be by community consensus, as was done with the first caliphs. Primarily based in Mecca, this faction established the foundation of what became Sunni Islam. Over time, these factional differences became increasingly contentious and divisive in the Muslim world; this schism underlay later political questions in the Arab empire and many subsequent Islamic states.

‘Uthman, one of the Prophet’s first converts and the third Caliph after Muhammad’s death, was a pious Muslim but a corrupt administrator. He gave precedence to the Meccan elite, diverging from ‘Umar’s policies of favoring those soldiers first to respond to the call to action. ‘Uthman’s appointees were members of the Meccan elite who generally pursued policies benefiting the Umayyad merchants of Mecca. Governmental effectiveness began to disintegrate under ‘Uthman’s rule, as opposition and instability plagued his tenure as caliph. Older, pious Muslims from Medina resented how Meccan Umayyads took over the umma some had previously persecuted and tried to destroy. ‘Uthman commissioned and authorized a single official version of the holy text, an act for which he received many accolades. But Qur’an reciters lost the opportunity for gainful employment and became alienated from this government. A disgruntled contingent called for ‘Uthman to resign and advocated the election of ‘Ali. Their discontent reached its violent culmination in 656 CE when resentful devotees of ‘Ali from Egypt broke into ‘Uthman’s home in Medina and assassinated him, purportedly while he was reading the Qur’an. They hastily arranged for the election of ‘Ali as ‘Uthman’s successor.

Thrice rejected by the majlis in favor of the first three caliphs, ‘Ali (656–661) reluctantly accepted leadership of the Islamic community. His selection represented a victory for those disappointed by the choice of ‘Uthman. ‘Ali assumed the role of caliph amid high expectations, viewed as a pious and generous man. Yet the caliphate suffered under his rule. He constantly had to suppress revolts and tensions between supporters of ‘Ali and the family of ‘Uthman, tensions that eventually erupted into the violence. He faced a military challenge from the Prophet’s favored wife, ‘A’isha, and her associates, Talha and Zubayr, both relatives of ‘Uthman, finally defeating these challengers in a bloody battle near Basra.

‘Ali also had to contend with Mu‘awiya, ‘Uthman’s cousin and former governor of Syria. Mu‘awiya refused to pay homage to ‘Ali and asserted his own independence in Syria. Members of Mu‘awiya’s Umayyad Clan were dismayed by the quick election of ‘Ali, and questions lingered over the new caliph’s part in ‘Uthman’s death. ‘Ali’s failure to act against ‘Uthman’s assassins proved his culpability in the eyes of critics, and Mu‘awiya asserted the traditional Arab custom of exacting revenge on one’s enemies.

Mu‘awiya’s conflict with ‘Ali culminated in 657 when they met at the Battle of Siffin, on the Euphrates River in northern Syria. After months of clashes, ‘Ali agreed to arbitration with Mu‘awiya, preferring negotiation over bloodshed. But his willingness to negotiate with Mu‘awiya caused some of Ali’s soldiers to defect, adopting the appellation of Kharijis, from kharaja, meaning “to depart.” The first sect in Islam, they broke with ‘Ali because they believed “judgment belongs to God alone” (Qur’an 6:57). They saw ‘Ali’s willingness to negotiate with Mu‘awiya as reducing the role of God in determining a successor. In lieu of arbitration, they thought God would determine the rightful successor by influencing the outcome on the field of battle.

CALIPHATE RULE

The Umayyad Caliphate

In 661 CE, ‘Ali suffered the same fate as his predecessor when a Khariji stabbed him to death. As with ‘Uthman, the murder of ‘Ali took place during prayers. ‘Ali’s death represented a deep loss for his followers who saw him as an advocate of an egalitarian version of Islam and a believer in a just and righteous government. His death came to be regarded as martyrdom in the service of Allah who his followers insisted had developed spiritual gifts that remained virtually unattainable for others.

Supporters of ‘Ali encouraged his oldest son, Hasan, to succeed his father but Mu‘awiya threatened the Prophet’s grandson with continued warfare and convinced him to renounce his claim to the caliphate. Mu‘awiya promised Hasan he would not appoint an heir, to ensure the election of future caliphs would return to the majlis. Handsomely compensated by Mu‘awiya, Hasan subsequently retired to Mecca and took up religion. He remained there until his death in 669 CE. With this major obstacle removed, Mu‘awiya became the fifth caliph, ending the era of leaders Muslims termed the Rashidun Caliphate (the four rightly guided caliphs).

Mu‘awiya (661–680 CE) founded the Umayyad Caliphate. Once ensconced in power, however, the Umayyad Caliphate did not follow through with the promise to Hasan, instead ending election of caliphs by consensus and establishing a hereditary principle of succession. Mu‘awiya established the center of the caliphate in Damascus (Syria). Unable to rely on the Arab tribal system or peninsula traditions to administer an ever-expanding empire, he centralized the state, adopting Byzantine administrative strategies, imperial customs and bureaucratic practices.

Mu‘awiya received support due to his determination to seek retribution for ‘Uthman’s death but squandered much of that good will by harassing supporters of ‘Ali. As anti-Umayyad sentiment increased, the rift between the Sunnis and Shia continued to expand and angry “partisans of ‘Ali” (Shia) harbored growing resentment towards the Umayyads. Unlike the two caliphs who preceded him, Mu‘awiya died peacefully in bed. Prior to his death, he designated his son Yazid (680–683 CE) as his successor, violating his agreement with Hasan. While enjoying a well-deserved reputation as a fierce fighter, Yazid was also known for dissolute behavior that offended the religious sensibilities of many pious Muslims. Once ensconced as caliph, Yazid failed to secure an oath of allegiance from Husayn, brother of Hasan, one of the most important Muslim leaders. Their rivalry escalated into a full-scale civil war.

A direct descendent of the Prophet Muhammad and younger son of Caliph ‘Ali, Husayn rejected the deal his brother negotiated, pursuing his own claim to the rightful leadership of the Islamic community. His Shia supporters loathed the Umayyads and believed the caliph must be closely related to the Prophet. Husayn’s refusal to recognize Yazid as the next caliph led to conflict culminating in the Battle of Karbala (located west of present day Baghdad) in 680 CE. Yazid dispatched a military detachment to Iraq and overwhelmed Husayn’s small band of armed followers; many of Husayn’s own men deserted him in his hour of need and he was killed by Umayyad forces. The Shia perceive this seminal event as a turning point in their history.

The death of Husayn shocked the incipient Shia community and many felt guilty for failing to assist his little band. The Shia were profoundly affected by Husayn’s martyrdom; over time, a powerful narrative developed to commemorate his last hours. Shia, past and present, memorialize Husayn’s death at the Battle of Karbala on the holy day of Ashura, the 10th day of the month of Muharram.

As Umayyad leaders consolidated control and crushed rebellion, Islam became the explicit basis of their rule. Byzantine coinage was replaced by the first Islamic currency. A new tax code was created based on the principles of Islam. Caliphs levied an additional tax on non-Muslims (jizya). Christians and Jews in conquered lands paid a property tax called kharaj. By converting to Islam, one could avoid paying the jizya and kharaj and Muslims enjoyed lower tax rates than non-Muslims. Conversions were thus fueled by both ideological and economic motivations. The process of Islamization was relatively peaceful and over time Islam became the dominant religion throughout the empire.

Caliph Abdul Malik emphasized the institutionalization of the Arabic language and culture in governmental functioning, decreeing all bureaucracy be conducted only in Arabic. Non-Arab administrators had to learn Arabic to keep their government jobs. Instituting a unifying language and Islamic law, however, did not eliminate differences in the empire. Cultural distinctions remained in this multi-cultural Islamic empire as many Muslims continued to speak Berber, Turkish, Kurdish, and Persian in addition to Arabic. Additionally, the simmering tensions between the dominant Sunni and minority Shia continued.

Modern Issues – Sunni / Shia Tensions

Questions to answer:

• What are the most significant differences in beliefs between Shia and Sunni Muslims today?
• What are some of the regions deeply effected by sectarian violence today?

Shia and Sunni Muslims share many fundamental beliefs: monotheism, reverence for the Prophet Muhammad, belief in heaven and hell, and the need to fulfill the Five Pillars of Islam. Yet differences in interpretations, laws, rituals – and especially political culture – grew deeper in the centuries following the emergence of this schism. Since the 7th century CE when this schism emerged, Sunnis have dominated the Islamic world in population and governing power. Shia communities have remained, for the most part, a visible but largely disenfranchised minority voice. Today only an estimated 10 – 15% of Muslims are Shia. Yet Shia Muslims were and continue to be a significant and impactful presence in many Islamic states. To achieve political goals and preserve distinctive religious practices, Shia Muslims have used tactics ranging from political mobilization to violence. Sunni Muslims have sought to maintain political and social dominance, and protect distinctive Sunni traditions. On occasion, this has meant actively suppressing and even persecuting Shia voices and communities. Conflicting agendas and power struggles have thus fueled periodic sectarian violence between Muslims for over a millennia.

Only a few times in the past has a prominent Muslim state been ruled under Shia leadership: the Fatamid Dynasty in Egypt between the 10th and 12th centuries, and the Safavid Empire in Persia which reached its peak in the 16th and 17th centuries. Today, the only Islamic countries formally led by Shia rule are Iran and Iraq. Iran has been under the rule of Shia clerics since the Iranian revolution of 1979 overthrew the Shah and installed leadership by Grand Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. In Iraq, Shia Muslims are a majority presence, having dominated elections since the first post-Saddam Hussain elections in 2005. Azerbaijan and Bahrain also have sizeable Shia majorities, while in Lebanon, Shia are the plurality. Sunni leadership presides in over 40 countries but Shia challenges to Sunni leadership, peaceful and violent, are evident in many states.

In recent years, sectarian tensions between Sunni and Shia Muslims have escalated, contributing to several global confrontations across the Islamic world including conflicts in Iraq, Iran, Syria, Lebanon, Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Chechnya, Azerbaijani, China’s Western provinces, Algeria, Egypt, Nigeria, the Balkans, the Philippines and Indonesia. Complicating these sectarian divisions are fractures within Shia communities as well as differences between Sunni branches. Both Sunni and Shia communities are experiencing the rise of extremist factions, increasing the occurrence and severity of sectarian violence. In addition to ongoing tensions between Shia and Sunni citizens in Iraq, for example, there is an ominous rise in tensions between Shia sects; one group is backed by Iran while other Shia groups embrace Iraqi nationalist fervor.

Differences between Shia and Sunni Muslims are clearly influential factors in the Islamic world, with competing religious agendas exacerbating other factors such as geopolitical competition, anti-Western passions and modern nationalist ambitions. Another factor escalating violence is intense competition between Saudi Arabia and Iran as both vie for regional dominance. These powers are exploiting sectarian Sunni/Shia passions to advance their religious and political agendas, supplying arms and money to chosen sides in regional conflicts in Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Bahrain and Yemen. A dramatic example of damage from this kind of proxy war involvement by these two wealthy states is the expanded scope of death and destruction in Syria. The Syrian civil war, raging since 2011, has resulted in over 250,000 killed, with close to 11 million people displaced, forced to live the brutal and despairing life of refugees.

An informed global citizen must be aware of the dangerous confluence of power politics, geopolitical ambitions and sectarian identities that is fueling violence in many regions of the Islamic world. Yet sectarian violence between Sunni and Shia Muslims is not inevitable nor intractable. In centuries past, violence was relatively rare between members of these two sects, and attacks that did occur were usually directed by religious or political leaders, rather than a product of the vigilante or popular outbursts as is being seen now. For much of their history, Sunni and Shia Muslims coexisted, intermarrying and praying together in mosques. Historians note that earlier centuries of coexistence were possible “…when a modicum of political order provided security for both communities” (Taşpınar, 2018). In the modern era, conditions of political turmoil and oppression, where one group has the power to threaten the other, have unleashed the horrors of sectarian hatreds and atrocities seen, for example, in Lebanon’s civil war in the 1970s-1980s and the deadly political turmoil in Iraq following the ouster of Saddam Hussain’s regime. In Syria, popular protests have devolved into a long, grueling, destabilizing civil war with intervening  outside powers exploiting the turmoil. In these conditions, sectarian hatreds have fed ferocious and brutal violence. Reducing the self-interested meddling of outside powers, and working to foster stable states where the rights of religious minorities (Shia and Sunni) are protected, appears essential to reducing sectarian bloodshed. As one analyst emphasized, regarding the Islamic world ,“Conflict is not in their DNA, and war is not their destiny” (Taşpınar, 2018).

The ‘Abbasid Caliphate

Centuries after Muhammad’s death, Muslims throughout the Arab Empire remained divided over how leadership should be determined. Kharijis eschewed disputes over lineage and advocated a more egalitarian brand of Islam than Sunni Umayyads. They believed any Muslim could be a rightful heir to the mantle of the Prophet, so long as that person rigorously adhered to examples set forth in the Sunna. Kharijis thought caliphs who diverged from the Prophet’s example should be overthrown, as evidenced by their assassination of the Caliph ‘Ali. Shia Muslims were angered by an Umayyad leadership that could not trace its ancestry to the Prophet Muhammad and was also responsible for the martyrdom of Husayn. Another source of tension was the Umayyad practice of punitive measures against non-Arabs deemed mawali, mostly Persians but also Kurds and Turks. Though Muslim, those identified as mawali were treated as second-class citizens, the same status as the People of the Book.

The ambitious ‘Abbasid family collaborated with disaffected groups to incite unrest and rebellion against the Umayyad leadership. They cultivated Shia based anti-Umayyad passions while emphasizing their own familial connection to the Prophet, tracing their ancestry to Muhammad’s uncle ‘Abbas and the Hashemite Clan and issuing vague promises to adopt Shia Islam once in power. A secretive family, the ‘Abbasids bided their time until the opportune moment to rebel. In 743 CE, as the Umayyad Caliphate was contending with revolts and the inopportune death of the Caliph Hisham, the ‘Abbasids initiated their revolution in eastern Persia. ‘Abbasid leaders successfully defeated Umayyad forces in a series of battles, culminating with the capture of the Umayyad capital Damascus. Rule by the ‘Abbasid Caliphate was established in 750 CE.

The ‘Abbasids attempted to eliminate the entire house of the Umayyads. Only one member, ‘Abd al-Rahman, escaped death and fled across North Africa to Spain where he created a Spanish Muslim dynasty modeled on the Umayyad dynasty. Under this transplanted Umayyad leadership, Spain became the wealthiest and most developed region in Europe. In later centuries, Medieval Europeans recovered ancient Classical knowledge through contacts with Islamic Spain.

The ‘Abbasids officially advocated Sunni orthodoxy, severing their alliance of convenience with the Shia, even assassinating Shia leaders regarded as potential threats to their rule. To escape ‘Abbasid persecution, many Shia scattered to the edges of the empire. While the Shia were angered by ‘Abbasid attacks, most Muslims welcomed the ‘Abbasid leadership’s revolt against the Umayyads who were seen as having digressed from core principles of Islam. As standard bearers of the Prophet’s family, the ‘Abbasids projected piety and benevolence, for example digging wells and providing protection along hajj routes.

Caliph al-Mansur (754–775 CE) abandoned the Umayyad capital of Damascus and moved the caliphate close to the old Persian capital of Ctesiphon, founding the new city of Baghdad in 762 CE. Situated at the confluence of the Tigris and Diyala rivers, Baghdad enjoyed a prime location with access to the sea but sufficiently distant from the coast to offer safety from pirates. For a time, it was the largest city in the world, with over half a million inhabitants, eclipsing even the great Chinese city of Chang’an. The new-founded city showcased lavish ‘Abbasid family residences and grandiose public buildings. The city had working sewers which dumped sewage into the nearby canals and rivers. Building Baghdad employed 100,000 citizens, stimulating the economy.

Prominently featured in One Thousand and One Nights, the reign of Caliph Harun al-Rashid (789–809 CE) represented the peak of ‘Abbasid rule. Harun furthered Baghdad’s development as a major economic center by encouraging trade along the Silk Routes and across the Indian Ocean. He made marginal agricultural land more productive, taking advantage of technological advances in irrigation and encouraged the cultivation of borrowed crops such as rice, cotton and sugar from India, and citrus fruits from China. Harun al-Rashid’s reign coincided with the ‘Golden Age’ of Islam, as Baghdad developed into a preeminent city of scholarship. Al-Rashid began the construction of the Bayt al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom), which became the foremost intellectual center in the Islamic world.

The House of Wisdom complex was home to several schools, astronomical observatories, and a massive library where scholars translated scientific and philosophical works from neighboring civilizations including works in Persian, Hindi, Chinese, and Greek. The scholastic and scientific brilliance associated with Islamic culture, so evident during the ‘Abbasid period, resulted from absorption of and intensified interchange between sophisticated civilizations from Southern Europe to Central Asia. Building on the brilliance of Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Persian, Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine cultures. Islamic scholars and institutions rivaled China in the preservation of past knowledge as well as fostering innovative advances. In mathematics, medicine and astronomy, the Islamic world was the center of cutting-edge investigation and discovery.

This prolific, advanced Islamic culture impacted communities from Afghanistan to Spain, with Muslim and Arab influences visible in social patterns, art, literature, language and politics. In Spain, Islamic culture contributed to the rise of sophisticated cities such as Toledo and Cordoba which became showpieces of the Islamic world. Centuries of Islamic rule influenced the culture, philosophy, architecture, arts and language of the developing Spanish civilization and these influences were further spread into areas impacted by Spanish colonization, including the Americas centuries later.

Moving the empire’s center from Damascus to Baghdad under the ‘Abbasids meant increased Persian influence throughout the Islamic world. The Persian Sibawayah (died circa 793 CE) responded to the need for non-Arab Muslims to understand the Qur’an by systematizing the first Arabic grammar, titled al-Kitab. The greatest poet of the period, Abu Nuwas (died circa 813 CE), was Arab and Iranian. The historian ibn Ishaq (died 768 CE) relocated to Baghdad where he too came under the influence of Persian culture. At the behest of Caliph al-Mansur, he composed the first authoritative biography of the Prophet Muhammad. Another important Persian scholar, al-Tabari (died 923 CE) wrote the History of Prophets and Kings, a seminal resource on early Islamic history. One of the most important Persian achievements adopted, absorbed and spread throughout the Arab empire was Persia’s innovative water technology – the qanat.

Environmental Issues – Qanats and Water Use

Questions to answer:

• What are the benefits of using qanats for irrigation in the MENA region?
• What are some of the other regions where this irrigation technology is or was used?
• What are some of the environmental challenges now being faced in MENA countries?

Islam arose in the unforgiving natural environment of the Arabian peninsula, and as the Arab Empire spread, the Islamic world encompassed many regions with similar arid and semi-arid conditions, a geographic region often referred to as MENA (Middle East and North Africa). A critical focus and achievement of Islamic empire building was the spread of successful water management technology and strategies.

Most civilizations in the MENA region lacked rivers and experienced only unreliable rainfall. Agriculture and permanent settlements were thus dependent on – and limited by – access to water. Responding to this need hundreds of years earlier, the ancient Persians developed the remarkable qanat system in the 1st century BCE. Qanat technology utilized underground tunnels and filtration galleries to channel aquifer water to the surface, then directed that water to agricultural and settlement uses. Some ancient tunnel systems extended several kilometers. Precise calculations were needed to ensure proper incline to avoid erosion and keep water flowing.

Ancient Persians also used qanats to cool the air with cold aquifer water, as well as creating underground water reservoirs, water mills and ice chambers. Notably, this ancient water technology was linked to a community management system of water usage that emphasized “…equitable and sustainable water sharing and distribution” (UNESCO 1, ND). A crucial characteristic of qanat conduits was they were underground, significantly reducing water evaporation which was and remains a serious concern in arid and semi-arid environments. Ancient Persia was the first great civilization in history not based on a massive river, and it was manipulation of water use through qanats that helped make possible the size, scope and achievements of this ancient culture.

Between the 7th and 9th centuries, as a result of Arab Islamic expansion, qanat water management technology was transplanted from Persia throughout the empire, from Southern Spain to North Africa, as well as evident in Eurasia as far as the Tarim Basin (Western China today). The spread of this water technology enhanced agricultural production, enabled cultivation of new crops, and expanded settlement populations, particularly in steppe and desert fringe areas of MENA. Diffusion of qanat technology throughout the expanding Islamic world impacted not just the economic lives of subjects but enabled growth of the empire itself. This water management system became known by many different names across continents, for example “… “karez” Afghanistan and Pakistan), “kanerjing” (China), “falaj” (United Arab Emirates) and “foggara/fughara” (North Africa)” (Angelakis 2012, 555). As Northern European societies emerged out of the stagnancy of the Middle Ages, contacts with Islamic Iberian societies led to further diffusion of Islamic achievements, including water management systems, into European regions. Further spread of qanat technology took place as the Spanish utilized this water management in their colonies in the Americas, for example in Mexico, Chile and Peru. Qanat are found in 34 countries globally, and some are still functioning today.

Historians note “(q)anats were the symbol of sustainable development and operation of groundwater resources…” (Angelakis, 2012; 555). Yet today those lessons appear forgotten. In the 21st century, much of the MENA region is still not self-sufficient in food production due in large part to chronic lack of fresh water supplies. Iran and other MENA countries today are emphasizing use of wells and pumped water, depleting aquifers rapidly. Countries like Saudi Arabia and Libya are dependent on finite underground sources for 70-90% of their water supply and are intensively extracting this water to grow water-hungry, non-native crops such as wheat. This is an unsustainable strategy as aquifers drained by modern extractive methods are being depleted at alarming rates. Depending on the environment, recharging or renewing an aquifer can take hundreds, if not thousands, of years. Yet some aquifers are now depleted in a matter of years. In addition, modernization has resulted in increased pollution and degradation of freshwater. As one historian summarized, “…environmental degradation has increased dramatically, with higher levels of deforestation, irreversible land degradation, spoilage of fisheries, depletion of aquifers, and pollution of water resources. Given the fragility of the Middle Eastern environment, the cumulative, irreversible impacts of these changes pose a significant challenge for the future” (Burke, 2009). These environmental threats make it all the more important to recognize and learn from the sustainable water management systems of Persian qanats embraced by the Islamic world during Caliphate rule.

Despite the many successes of the ‘Abbasid Caliphate, internal developments led to troubling and destabilizing trends. Influenced by ancient Sassanian (Persian) court traditions, ‘Abbasid leaders distanced themselves from their subjects. The harem embodied this spatial separation. A forbidden place, the caliph’s family made the harem their personal residence. Caliphs controlled the empire through family, solidifying political alliances by marrying many powerful women. The harem bestowed power to the women who played an important role in influencing ‘Abbasid politics, particularly regarding succession. Young men who were to rule resided in the harem, and there was much scheming over which son the caliph preferred. The mother of the caliph dominated internal politics of the space. The second most powerful woman in the household was the mother of the heir apparent. Weakened by fractured resulting from harem and palace intrigue, the ‘Abbasid Caliphate eventually succumbed to internecine warfare.

The ‘Abbasids began their long, slow decline under al-Ma’mun who conferred greater freedom upon his emirs, the provincial governors. This decentralization of power eventually unleashed destructive centrifugal forces. Internal problems continued under al-Mu‘tasim (833–842 CE), who replaced undependable tribal armies with mamluks. Mamluks were part of an elite slave system that imported young boys from various backgrounds and trained them in the military arts, and they played an increasingly important role in the fate of the caliphate.

Because enslavement of Muslims was not permitted in Islam, caliphs obtained slaves by raiding outside of the Islamic world or trading for them. Indoctrinated at a young age, mamluks remained loyal to their leaders, serving as their personal bodyguard. Once emancipated, they entered into a contractual relationship with their former masters and benefited from certain property and marriage rights. Although often portrayed as slaves in the popular imagination, mamluks actually formed a proud caste of soldiers who considered themselves superior to the rest of society. As elite bodyguards to the caliph, they supplanted the traditional ethnic hierarchy of the ‘Abbasids, leading to increased unrest and civil disturbances. To remove the mamluks from the volatility in Baghdad, the caliph moved the capital to Samarra, some 60 miles to the north. This only delayed the inevitable, as subsequent caliphs could not control the rising tensions that fed greater social instability, contributing to the decentralization and fragmentation of the empire.

Later Caliphates

The Fatimid Caliphate

The transition from tribal armies to reliance on mamluk forces had profound repercussions for the ‘Abbasids. Mamluks like Ahmad ibn Tulun (835–884 CE), a slave from Circassia, exemplified this erosive pattern of decentralization and fragmentation. Sent by the ‘Abbasids to Egypt to strengthen control in this region, ibn Tulun founded schools, hospitals, and mosques in Egypt, the most famous being the ibn Tulun Mosque. Ibn Tulun exploited problems the ‘Abbasids faced due to palace intrigue, disorderly mamluks, and revolts like the Zanj Rebellion, a slave rebellion. The ‘Abbasids could not control ibn Tulun and as the caliphate broke down, he secured almost complete autonomy from Baghdad. By the end of his reign, ibn Tulun retained his own tax revenue and raised his own mamluk army. Ibn Tulun’s autonomy in Egypt was a portend of ‘Abbasid decline, whose authority ended in 945 CE. The Buyids, an Iranian dynasty, took power, relegating the ‘Abbasids to the status of religious figureheads as the caliphate continued in name only.

Egypt grew increasingly independent of Baghdad under the Tulunids, allowing for the rise of regional leaders such as the Fatimid Caliphate (910-1171 CE). Members of the Isma‘ili sect of Shia Islam, the Fatimids traced their origins to Fatima, the Prophet’s daughter, and ‘Ali. Isma‘ilis believed divinely ordained spiritual leadership of the Islamic community descended from ‘Ali to Isma‘il, son of Jafar al-Sadiq and great-grandson of ‘Ali. They refused to recognize the legitimacy of the ‘Abbasids and sought to convert Sunnis to their own brand of Islam. Isma‘ili missionaries spread throughout the empire, preaching religious revolution and achieved their greatest success in the North African Maghreb region. Though unsuccessful in replacing the reach and power of the ‘Abbasid empire, Fatimid leaders took control of much of North Africa, ultimately conquering Egypt. Though in decline by the early 12th century, this Shi’ite regime was a rare exception from the norm of Sunni-based rule.

The Crusades and Salah al-Din

Not all threats to the Islamic world were internal. In the 11th century, Europeans launched the first incursions of the Crusades, initiating a centuries-long period of violence. In 1081, as Byzantine Emperor Alexios Komnenos ascended to the throne, he needed military support to secure his borders from Turkic marauders. He appealed to Pope Urban II (1088–1099 CE) for help recruiting mercenary soldiers, specifically Frankish knights. In Europe, regional leaders were seeking to address problems of overpopulation and reduce the endemic violence resulting from a martial-based elite. Sending these knights on campaigns in the Holy Land would help address these goals.

In 1095 CE, Pope Urban II launched the first crusade. Urban II was enjoying an increase in papal power from recent church reforms and renewed religious fervor. While traveling through France, he argued for the recovery of the Holy Land, asserting that because it belonged to Jesus, it should be controlled by his followers. Crusaders were promised a land flowing with milk, honey, and riches. The Catholic Church also offered spiritual rewards such as salvation for those who died on campaign, and a secured place in heaven for anyone who invested in a crusade.

With this first Crusade, Europeans initiated centuries of armed conflicts with Muslim states in the eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. Success in the first crusade enabled Christian forces to establish the Crusader ruled states of Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli, and the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. European knights enjoyed initial success due to the political fragmentation of Seljuq Turks in the eastern Mediterranean and the lack of involvement by the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt which was reeling from religious schism as well as famine and plague. But later crusader campaigns ended in disaster, degenerating into looting expeditions or vengeful reactions to Muslim victories over Crusader states.

Muslim counterattacks were conducted under Salah al-Din (Saladin, d. 1193), who unified various Muslim factions in the eastern Mediterranean. An ethnic Kurd, he hailed from a family of soldiers employed by Nur al-Din of the Zengid Dynasty, a vassal state of the Seljuq Turks. Salah al-Din, a dynamic leader and tactician, helped dispatch Fatimid opposition in Egypt and solidified Nur al-Din’s rule there. Salah al-Din eventually became vizier (senior minister) to Nur al-Din in 1169 CE. For five years, Salah al-Din ruled Egypt on behalf of Nur al-Din. Nur al-Din died in Damascus in 1174, leaving no clear successor. In the absence of a formal heir, Salah al-Din established the Ayyubid Dynasty (1171–1260 CE) in Egypt.

Salah al-Din established the Ayyubid Sultanate, a Sunni government. As champions of Sunni Islam, the dynasty recruited leading Muslim scholars from Egypt and abroad, and Egypt became a preeminent state in the Islamic world at this time. He used the concept of jihad to unify the Middle East under the banner of Islam in opposition to Christians forces, but did not direct jihad solely against them. A champion of Sunni Islam, Salah al-Din also believed his religion was threatened by the Shia. Although Salah al-Din maintained direct control over Egypt, he distributed control over parts of the empire to loyal vassals and family members who became increasingly autonomous from Cairo. Salah al-Din’s sons and grandsons had trouble managing an increasingly decentralized empire. Widespread mamluk factionalism and family disputes over territory contributed to the weakening of the sultanate. In this vacuum of power, the mamluks came to the fore.

The Mamluk Sultanate

In 1249 CE, as-Salih, the last Ayyubid ruler, died. Under imminent threat of Louis IX’s 7th Crusader invasion, as-Salih’s wife, Shajar al-Durr, took over the reins of government until her son, Turanshah, could assert himself. A cabal of mamluks loyal to as-Salih murdered Turanshah and raised Shajar al-Durr to the throne. Her rule resulted in much controversy and many internal problems. The mamluks responded by installing into power Aybak. He married Shajar al-Durr and she abdicated the throne. Shajar al-Durr remained dissatisfied in her new role, and had Aybak murdered so she could rule in her own right. In the end, she was executed and her son deposed as Qutuz, a leading mamluk, took power.

Qutuz led the malmuks as they faced the encroaching Mongols from the East. Securing a rare victory, the mamluks forced the remnants of the Mongol forces to retreat. Just days after their signal victory over the Mongols, Baybars (1260–1277 CE) murdered Qutuz, continuing a pattern of rule in which only the strongest mamluk rulers could survive. Baybars relocated the ‘Abbasid Caliph from Baghdad to Cairo to present a veneer of legitimacy to mamluk rule.

The Mamluk Sultanate (1250 to 1517 CE) practiced Sunni Islam, though some leaders emphasized Sufism. Sufism emphasized making a closer, spiritual connection to Allah, rather than strict adherence to dictates of the Qur’an. Sufis desired integrating the reality of Allah into man and achieving union with God based on love. This ideology contrasted sharply with key interpretations of orthodox Islam which emphasized that all understanding of Allah came through the Muhammad as the Seal of the Prophets rather than direct experience with Allah. Sufis emerged as another minority sect in Islam, and established its presence by setting up madrasas, religious schools consisting of a mosque, school, hospital, and water supply for a community.

One of the remarkable sources providing a glimpse of the Islamic world during this period are the writings of Ibn Battuta, a Muslim Berber from Morocco famed for his stories of his wide-ranging travels during the 14th century. On several journeys taken over 30 years, Battuta traveled to sites throughout much of the Islamic world which, in the 1300s, included North Africa, West Africa, Southern and Eastern Europe as well as throughout the Middle East. Battuta also ventured across Asia, including treks into India and Central Asia. He traveled farther and more broadly than any known figure of his age, surpassing even the exploits of his contemporary, Marco Polo.

By the end of the 14th and early 15th centuries, mamluk control declined due to several factors. The Black Death ravaged Egypt for years, continuing in North Africa longer than it did in Europe and causing severe economic disruption. Plague-related inflation destabilized the economy as the value of goods and services rose. Mamluks responded to inflationary pressures by increasing taxes, but tax revenues continued to decrease, making it difficult for the mamluk leaders to maintain irrigation networks. Without irrigation, agricultural productivity decreased.

Plague was not the only cause of inflation. Following Columbus’s discovery of the New World, gold increasingly filtered through Europe and into North Africa. Egypt’s weak economy could not absorb this massive influx of money. Additionally, new trade routes like the one pioneered by Vasco de Gama, offered Europeans direct sea routes to Asia. No longer was Egypt the middleman for long-distance trade between Europe and Asia, diminishing revenue from tariffs. Profits from commerce transferred to ascending states of Portugal and Spain. The decline of the mamluks set the stage for the rise of the Ottomans.

TURKISH LEADERSHIP

Control of Northern India

In the centuries after the death of Muhammad, leadership of the Islamic world shifted in regional focus and ethnic make-up away from dominance by Meccan Arabs. Islam was now a world religion, firmly rooted in the Near East and North Africa, and spreading deep into Saharan Africa and Central Asia. In the 10th century, a new group – the Turks – emerged as a vibrant force in the Islamic world, ultimately taking power and continuing the momentum of empire building and spread of Islamic religion and culture. As Turkish-speaking tribes in Central Asia were absorbed by the Arab Empire, many converted. Some did so to avoid being captured and treated as slaves, since Islamic leaders traditionally would not enslave other Muslims. Others were compelled by the power of the religion. Regardless of impetus, there can be no doubt about the intensity of Turkish converts who sought to spread this religion; Turks became the most dynamic force in the Islamic world.

The martial emphasis of Turkish tribes, with military skills honed on the unforgiving Asian steppes, led to a resurgence of military-based expansion of Islam. Conquests led to rule over large swaths of territory by Turkish sultans; sultan is a Turkish title meaning ‘he with authority’. These sultanates represented a significant new force in Mediterranean and Asian relations. Fueled by desire for wealth and to spread Islam, Turkish Muslims targeted regions throughout Northern India. Over two centuries (10th-13th), Turkish-led forces consolidated Muslim rule over the Indus River valley, took control of the Punjab region and expanded as far East as the Ganges river basin. Inevitable clashes between these very different traditions led to periodic and violent conflicts. The most prominent Turkish invader, Mahmud of Ghazi (971-1030 CE) earned the nickname ‘Idol Breaker’ due to his propensity for smashing ‘idols’ in Hindu and Buddhist temples. Mahmud’s invasion of India from his power base in Afghanistan meant the forcible introduction of Islam into traditional communities of India, most intensively in northern regions of this region.

Muslim leaders remained in power in Northern India for the next several centuries, establishing first the Delhi Sultanate. As the power of the Delhi Sultanate declined in the 1500s, a new Turkish dynasty created the Mughal (Mogul) Empire which reached its height in the late 17th century. Famous Mughal rulers included Babur (1526-1530 CE) and Akbar the Great (1562-1605 CE). The Mughals solidified Muslim control in Northern India and conducted forays into Southern India. Mughal leadership dominated in Northern India until the 18th century, when British control replaced Mughal power in India. Northern India thus experienced centuries of Islamic Turkish rule.

Centuries of Muslim rule meant Islamic religion and culture became deeply rooted throughout the Indus river and Ganges River valleys. Islamic culture brought use of the arch and minaret to Indian architecture, resulting in stunning creations such as the Taj Mahal, a ‘wonder of the world’ built by Mughal ruler Shah Jahan as a memorial for his wife Mumtaz Mahal. The Arabic language became part of the blend of the languages of Hindustani and Urdu. Urdu, the official language of Pakistan today, contains a mix of Persian, Indian and Arabic vocabularies. Central Asian food, music and art also reflected the fusion of Indian traditions with Turkish Islamic culture.

The most significant changes were in religious beliefs. Islamic rule continued for centuries under different dynasties in the north, and Islam became the dominant religion in that region, reducing the presence of native religious traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism. In the centuries following Mahmud’s invasion, Hinduism survived in Northern India as some communities clung to their beliefs, with Hindus living alongside Indians who converted to Islam. Some Turkish Sultans extended tolerance to Hindus, classifying them as ‘protected peoples’. During more enlightened reigns, an uneasy coexistence was maintained but relations were tenuous at best.

In southern regions of India, Islam was far less evident; Hinduism remained the dominant religious and cultural force. Adherence to native ‘Indian’ traditions reflected resistance in the face of invaders, a way to defy imposed Islamic culture in the north. For Indians resisting cultural impositions of Turkish conquerors, Hinduism was a rallying point for those dedicated to sustaining native Indian traditions. Buddhism suffered substantial decline in the south as well as in the nort

Indian civilization after the 10th century suffered from a destabilizing religious and cultural schism between northern and southern regions. Results of this division are still glaringly evident today. There were long periods of relatively peaceful coexistence between Muslim rulers and subjects, and Hindus. But when relations deteriorated, traditions clashed in fiercely violent confrontations. Even when the entire region was forcefully tied together as one state by the British empire centuries later, underlying and irreconcilable cultural divisions remained unresolved. Significant divisions, hostilities, and historical animosities erupted with a vengeance when India gained its independence from Britain in the latter part of the 20th century and these schisms are still visible today. Tensions and religious based hatreds are glaringly evident today within and between the modern states of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.

The Ottoman Empire

The momentum of Islamic armies into Central Asia was abruptly halted in the 13th century as Turkish sultans, along with several other leaders and civilizations, were stymied by an even more intimidating military force – the Mongols. During the 1200s – 1300s, societies throughout Asia and the Near East were dominated by seemingly invincible Mongol horsemen. But with the Mongol Empire in decline by the mid-14th century, Turkish leaders again asserted regional power throughout the Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean. By the 13th century, some Turkish speaking tribes had migrated from Central Asia to Anatolia, modern day Turkey. From this base in Anatolia, in the early 14th century, Turkish chief Othman I (Osman) unified a confederation of Turkish tribes. These Turkish Muslims, resettled in the Near East, displayed the same desire to expand power, seize wealth, and spread Islam as their Central Asian counterparts. The aggression displayed by Turkish warriors was in part a response to recent humiliations at the hands of the Mongols, as well as the aggressive attacks of crusading Catholic forces.

Having unified Turkish forces, Othman initiated a period of extraordinarily rapid and successful expansion, creating the Ottoman Empire. Founded in 1299 by Othman, this empire lasted for centuries, until its official dissolution in 1922 in the years following its defeat in World War One. Throughout the 14th and 15th centuries, Ottoman Turks expansion established control throughout the Fertile Crescent, including Syria, Lebanon and Mesopotamia. Territories in Egypt, Arabia and much of North Africa were also brought under Ottoman rule. The most dramatic consequences of Ottoman expansion occurred with Islamic conquest of non Muslim regions.

End of the Byzantine Empire

A primary focus of Ottoman expansion was seizing control of territories in the Eastern Mediterranean, taking over from what was left of the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire suffered significant territorial losses during the first wave of Arab expansion in the 8th century. Mongol control of trade also dealt significant blows to the wealth and integrity of this once impressive empire. In the 15th century, Ottoman Turks finished off what was left of the once great empire. All that remained of the Byzantine Empire (the Eastern Roman Empire) by the mid-1400s was the capital city, Constantinople and a small amount of surrounding territory. To breach the city’s impressive fortifications, Ottoman forces laid siege to the city for decades before it finally fell in 1453 CE. This historic city became the capital of the Ottoman Empire; in the 20th century the city was renamed Istanbul.

1453 CE is a significant year in world history; in many respects it marked the true end of the Roman Empire. Additionally, with the defeat of Constantinople, the Eastern Orthodox Christian Church lost its center and fragmented into several regionally controlled Orthodox Churches, with local patriarchs heading the Greek, Serbian, Russian and other regional Orthodox Churches. The fall of Constantinople led many Christians to flee Ottoman Islamic control, heading for Christian Western and Central Europe territories. These refugees brought with them art, written works and artifacts of the Eastern Roman Empire, facilitating European recovery of lost ancient Greek and Roman knowledge and contributing to the Renaissance. Despite this beneficial result, the defeat of Constantinople was viewed at the time as a tremendous loss for the Christian world, the end of Christian control of the Eastern Mediterranean.

The Balkans

The Balkans region of southwest Europe was the most dramatically affected by centuries of Ottoman control. This strategic region had been conquered by several empires throughout its history. With a decisive defeat of a coalition of Serbian forces in the historic Battle of Kosovo in 1389, Ottoman forces established rule of this region that lasted over 500 years. At its height, Ottomans controlled this corner of Europe, home to  modern countries of Greece, Macedonia, Serbia, Croatia, Albania, Bulgaria, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Slovenia, Hungary and Romania.

Centuries of Ottoman rule meant Islam took root in parts of the Balkans and territories around the Caspian Sea. Reflecting the relative tolerance of Ottoman rulers towards monotheistic religions of Christianity and Judaism, Orthodox Christian, Catholic and Judaic communities were allowed to continue to practice their religion as People of the Book. But Christians and Jews were still treated as second class citizens and given the status of rayah. Rayah were not allowed to be armed, had to wear clothing signifying their secondary status, and had fewer rights and privileges than Muslims, including lack of access to desired jobs. They also paid heavy taxes for the right to maintain their faith. A particularly despised policy imposed on rayah demanded certain male children be taken from Christian families to be brought up as Muslims and serve in the janissaries, an elite military order fiercely loyal to the Ottoman Sultan. Under some Sultans, treatment was even more heavy-handed, with rayah treated brutally and any hint of resistance suppressed by atrocities and bloodshed.

Those in the Balkans who converted to Islam did so for several reasons: the appeal of the religion, to enable a better life, and to avoid penalties. These conversions engendered division and hostility on the part of some Christians. Intractable religious differences from the forced introduction of Islam exacerbated already existing, complicated ethnic and language differences in this crossroads region, fueling violence and atrocities in this region into the modern era. There are no easy solutions to Balkans tensions and competing nationalist and religious loyalties, but understanding the history and legacies of the 14th century is a necessary beginning.

Control of the Silk Road

Another long term consequence of Ottoman expansion and control was perhaps the most important from the perspective of world history. By the end of the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire controlled land trade routes between Asia and the Mediterranean, enabling leaders to levy taxes on goods moving East and West through their territory. Additionally, the Ottoman Empire controlled access to crucial sea-based trade routes across the Eastern Mediterranean, the Black Sea, the Red Sea and parts of the Indian Ocean. Strategic control resulted in staggering wealth for the Ottoman Empire for centuries, reaching its peak during the famed reign of Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent, who ruled 1520 to 1566 CE.

Ottoman control generated growing European resentment as commerce and trade became increasingly important to European communities undergoing economic revival. Europeans developed a hunger for Asian goods during the vibrant age of Euro-Asian trade enabled during the Mongol Empire. But with the collapse of Mongol rule, trade was more restricted and now was heavily taxed by Islamic powers in Asia and the Near East, in particular Ottoman Sultans. European merchants and leaders resented loss of revenue from Ottoman taxes, and European consumers resented higher prices for, and decreased access to, these goods. Christians also disliked having to comply with Muslim laws and policies to maintain trading connections with the East.

Europeans’ resentment of what some termed a Ottoman ‘stranglehold’ on international trade with Asia and North Africa prompted political leaders and private commercial interests to invest in finding sea routes to markets and goods of the East. Voyages initiating the European age of expansion and conquest in the 15th and 16th centuries sought to circumvent existing trade routes controlled and taxed by the Ottoman Empire, and launched the epic changes brought about by European sea dominance. Global colonization, Western ‘discovery’ and conquest of the American continents, and dramatic increases in global trade and interactions followed, watershed changes that resulted in global European prominence and intensification of global interactions, ushering in a new era in world history.

SUMMARY

Beginning in the 7th century, Islam emerged and grew rapidly from an Arabian religion to an expanding world faith, becoming the predominant factor that tied together cultures throughout North Africa and Middle East for centuries. Over those centuries, different caliphates relied on family and religion to rule these regions, facing religiously-inspired revolts that challenged their authority within, as well as incursions from European crusaders. Quelling these revolts and invaders weakened the regimes, and in many cases led to greater decentralization and fragmentation of empires. Yet even as political fortunes of empires and dynasties rose and fell, the influence and cultural dominance and spread of Islam continued, as did achievements of Islamic science and technology. In later centuries, Turkish leaders continued the expansion of Islam and the Islamic world, creating transformations and legacies that continue to influence a vast number of peoples and regions today.

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