Basic Biology, Anatomy, and Physiology
University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa Food Science and Human Nutrition Program and Human Nutrition Program
The Basic Structural and Functional Unit of Life: The Cell
What distinguishes a living from an inanimate object? A living conducts self-sustaining biological processes. A cell is the smallest and most basic form of life.
The cell theory incorporates three principles:
Cells are the most basic building units of life. All living things are composed of cells. New cells are made from preexisting cells, which divide in two. Who you are has been determined because of two cells that came together inside your mother’s womb. The two cells containing all of your genetic information (DNA) united to begin making new life. Cells divided and differentiated into other cells with specific roles that led to the formation of the body’s numerous body , systems, blood, blood vessels, bone, tissue, and skin. As an adult, you are made up of trillions of cells. Each of your individual cells is a compact and efficient form of life—self-sufficient, yet interdependent upon the other cells within your body to supply its needs.
Independent single-celled organisms must conduct all the basic processes of life. The single-celled organism must take in nutrients (energy capture), excrete wastes, detect and respond to its environment, move, breathe, grow, and reproduce. Even a one-celled organism must be organized to perform these essential processes. All cells are organized from the atomic level to all its larger forms. Oxygen and hydrogen atoms combine to make the molecule (H2O). Molecules bond together to make bigger macromolecules. The carbon is often referred to as the backbone of life because it can readily bond with four other elements to form long chains and more complex macromolecules. Four macromolecules—carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids—make up all of the structural and functional units of cells.
Although we defined the cell as the “most basic” unit of life, it is structurally and functionally complex (Figure 2.2 “The Cell Structure”). A cell can be thought of as a mini-organism consisting of tiny called organelles. The organelles are structural and functional units constructed from several macromolecules bonded together. A typical animal cell contains the following organelles: the nucleus (which houses the genetic material DNA), mitochondria (which generate energy), ribosomes (which produce protein), the endoplasmic reticulum (which is a packaging and transport facility), and the golgi apparatus (which distributes macromolecules). In addition, animal cells contain little digestive pouches, called lysosomes and peroxisomes, which break down macromolecules and destroy foreign invaders. All of the organelles are anchored in the cell’s cytoplasm via a cytoskeleton. The cell’s organelles are isolated from the surrounding environment by a plasma membrane.
Figure 2.2 The Cell Structure
Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organisms
Unicellular (single-celled) organisms can function independently, but the cells of multicellular organisms are dependent upon each other and are organized into five different levels in order to coordinate their specific functions and carry out all of life’s biological processes (see Figure 2.3 “Organization of Life”.
- Cells are the basic structural and functional unit of all life. Examples include red blood cells and nerve cells. There are hundreds of types of cells. All cells in a person contain the same genetic information in DNA. However, each cell only expresses the genetic codes that relate to the cell’s specific structure and function.
- are groups of cells that share a common structure and function and work together. There are four basic types of human : connective, which connects tissues; epithelial, which lines and protects organs; muscle, which contracts for movement and support; and nerve, which responds and reacts to signals in the environment.
- Organs are a group of tissues arranged in a specific manner to support a common physiological function. Examples include the brain, liver, and heart.
- are two or more organs that support a specific physiological function. Examples include the and . There are eleven organ systems in the human body (see Table 2.1 “The Eleven Organ Systems in the Human Body and Their Major Functions”).
- An organism is the complete living system capable of conducting all of life’s biological processes.
Figure 2.3 Organization of Life
Table 2.1 The Eleven Organ Systems in the Human Body and Their Major Functions
| Organ System | Organ Components | Major Function |
| Cardiovascular | heart, blood/lymph vessels, blood, lymph | Transport nutrients and waste products |
| Digestive | mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines | Digestion and absorption |
| Endocrine | all glands (thyroid, ovaries, pancreas) | Produce and release hormones |
| Lymphatic | tonsils, adenoids, spleen and thymus | A one-way system of vessels that transport lymph throughout the body |
| Immune | white blood cells, lymphatic tissue, marrow | Defend against foreign invaders |
| Integumentary | skin, nails, hair, sweat glands | Protective, body temperature regulation |
| Muscular | skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle | Body movement |
| Nervous | brain, spinal cord, nerves | Interprets and responds to stimuli |
| Reproductive | gonads, genitals | Reproduction and sexual characteristics |
| Respiratory | lungs, nose, mouth, throat, trachea | Gas exchange |
| Skeletal | bones, tendons, ligaments, joints | Structure and support |
| Urinary, Excretory | kidneys, bladder, ureters | Waste excretion, water balance |
Learning Activities
Technology Note: The second edition of the Human Nutrition Open Educational Resource (OER) textbook features interactive learning activities. These activities are available in the web-based textbook and not available in the downloadable versions (EPUB, Digital PDF, Print_PDF, or Open Document).
Learning activities may be used across various mobile devices, however, for the best user experience it is strongly recommended that users complete these activities using a desktop or laptop computer and in Google Chrome.
A complete living system capable of conducting all of life’s biological processes.
A group of tissues that performs a specialized function.
The universal chemical solvent in which most of the processes of life occur.
The smallest unit of an element.
A collection of cells that of the same or very similar type that come together to carry out a specific function.
A group of organs that work together to perform different functions.
The system of organs that are responsible for ingestion, digestion, and absorption of food and the discharge of residual wastes.
The organ system that includes the brain and spinal cord responsible for sensing changes in the external environment and creating a reaction to them.