Proteins, Diet, and Personal Choices
University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa Food Science and Human Nutrition Program and Human Nutrition Program
We have discussed what proteins are, how they are made, how they are digested and absorbed, the many functions of proteins in the body, and the consequences of having too little or too much in the diet. This section will provide you with information on how to determine the recommended amount of protein for you, and your many choices in designing an optimal diet with high-quality protein sources.
How Much Protein Does a Person Need in Their Diet?
The recommendations set by the IOM for the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) and for protein for different age groups are listed in Table 6.2 “Dietary Reference Intakes for Protein”. A Tolerable Upper Intake Limit for protein has not been set, but it is recommended that you do not exceed the upper end of the AMDR.
Table 6.2 Dietary Reference Intakes for Protein
| Age Group | RDA (g/day) | AMDR (% calories) |
| Infants (0–6 mo) | 9.1* | Not determined |
| Infants (7–12 mo) | 11.0 | Not determined |
| Children (1–3) | 13.0 | 5–20 |
| Children (4–8) | 19.0 | 10–30 |
| Children (9–13) | 34.0 | 10–30 |
| Males (14–18) | 52.0 | 10–30 |
| Females (14–18) | 46.0 | 10–30 |
| Adult Males (19+) | 56.0 | 10–35 |
| Adult Females (19+) | 46.0 | 10–35 |
| * Denotes Adequate Intake |
Source: Dietary Reference Intakes: Macronutrients. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Institute of Medicine. September 5, 2002. Accessed September 28, 2017.
Protein Input = Protein Used by the Body + Protein Excreted
The appropriate amount of protein in a person’s diet is that which maintains a balance between what is taken in and what is used. The RDAs for protein were determined by assessing . Nitrogen is one of the four basic elements contained in all amino acids. When proteins are broken down and amino acids are catabolized, nitrogen is released. Remember that when the liver breaks down amino acids, it produces ammonia, which is rapidly converted to nontoxic, nitrogen-containing urea, which is then transported to the kidneys for excretion. Most nitrogen is lost as urea in the urine, but urea is also excreted in the feces. Proteins are also lost in sweat and as hair and nails grow. The RDA, therefore, is the amount of protein a person should consume in their diet to balance the amount of protein used up and lost from the body. For healthy adults, this amount of protein was determined to be 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight. You can calculate your exact recommended protein intake per day based on your weight by using the following equation:
(Weight in lbs. ÷ 2.2 lb/kg) × 0.8 g/kg
Note that if a person is overweight, the amount of dietary protein recommended can be overestimated.
The IOM used data from multiple studies that determined nitrogen balance in people of different age groups to calculate the RDA for protein. A person is said to be in nitrogen balance when the nitrogen input equals the amount of nitrogen used and excreted. A person is in negative nitrogen balance when the amount of excreted nitrogen is greater than that consumed, meaning that the body is breaking down more protein to meet its demands. This state of imbalance can occur in people who have certain diseases, such as cancer or muscular dystrophy. Someone who has a low-protein diet may also be in negative nitrogen balance as they are taking in less protein than what they actually need. Positive nitrogen balance occurs when a person excretes less nitrogen than what is taken in by the diet, such as during child growth or pregnancy. At these times the body requires more protein to build new tissues, so more of what gets consumed gets used up and less nitrogen is excreted. A person healing from a severe wound may also be in positive nitrogen balance because protein is being used up to repair tissues.
Dietary Sources of Protein
The protein food group consists of foods made from meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, soy, dry beans, peas, and seeds. According to the Harvard School of Public Health, “animal protein and vegetable protein probably have the same effects on health. It’s the protein package that’s likely to make a difference.”[1]
Simply put, different protein sources differ in their additional components, so it is necessary to pay attention to the whole nutrient “package.” Protein-rich animal-based foods commonly have high amounts of B vitamins, , iron, magnesium, and zinc. Seafood often contains healthy fats, and plant sources of protein contain a high amount of fiber. Some animal-based protein-rich foods have an unhealthy amount of saturated fat and cholesterol. When choosing your dietary sources of protein, take note of the other nutrients and also the non-nutrients, such as cholesterol, dyes, and preservatives, in order to make good selections that will benefit your health. For instance, a hamburger patty made from 80 percent lean meat contains 22 grams of protein, 5.7 grams of saturated fat, and 77 milligrams of cholesterol. A burger made from 95 percent lean meat also contains 22 grams of protein, but has 2.3 grams of saturated fat and 60 milligrams of cholesterol. A cup of boiled soybeans contains 29 grams of protein, 2.2 grams of saturated fat, and no cholesterol. For more comparisons of protein-rich foods, see Table 6.3 “Sources of Dietary Protein”. To find out the complete nutrient package of different foods, visit the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) Food Composition Databases.
Table 6.3 Sources of Dietary Protein
| Food | Protein Content (g) | Saturated Fat (g) | Cholesterol (mg) | Calories |
| Hamburger patty 3 oz. (80% lean) | 22.0 | 5.7 | 77 | 230 |
| Hamburger patty 3 oz. (95% lean) | 22.0 | 2.3 | 60 | 139 |
| Top sirloin 3 oz. | 25.8 | 2.0 | 76 | 158 |
| Beef chuck 3 oz. (lean, trimmed) | 22.2 | 1.8 | 51 | 135 |
| Pork loin 3 oz. | 24.3 | 3.0 | 69 | 178 |
| Pork ribs (country style, 1 piece) | 56.4 | 22.2 | 222 | 790 |
| Chicken breast (roasted, 1 c.) | 43.4 | 1.4 | 119 | 231 |
| Chicken thigh (roasted, 1 thigh) | 13.5 | 1.6 | 49 | 109 |
| Chicken leg (roasted, 1 leg) | 29.6 | 4.2 | 105 | 264 |
| Salmon 3 oz. | 18.8 | 2.1 | 54 | 175 |
| Tilapia 3 oz. | 22.2 | 0.8 | 48 | 109 |
| Halibut 3 oz. | 22.7 | 0.4 | 35 | 119 |
| Shrimp 3 oz. | 17.8 | 0.2 | 166 | 84 |
| Shrimp (breaded, fried, 6–8 pcs.) | 18.9 | 5.4 | 200 | 454 |
| Tuna 3 oz. (canned) | 21.7 | 0.2 | 26 | 99 |
| Soybeans 1 c. (boiled) | 29.0 | 2.2 | 0 | 298 |
| Lentils 1 c. (boiled) | 17.9 | 0.1 | 0 | 226 |
| Kidney beans 1 c. (canned) | 13.5 | 0.2 | 0 | 215 |
| Sunflower seeds 1 c. | 9.6 | 2.0 | 0 | 269 |
The USDA provides some tips for choosing your dietary protein sources. Their motto is, “Go Lean with Protein”. The overall suggestion is to eat a variety of protein-rich foods to benefit health. The USDA recommends lean meats, such as round steaks, top sirloin, extra lean ground beef, pork loin, and skinless chicken. Additionally, a person should consume 8 ounces of cooked seafood every week (typically as two 4-ounce servings) to assure they are getting the healthy omega-3 fatty acids that have been linked to a lower risk for heart disease. Another tip is choosing to eat dry beans, peas, or soy products as a main dish. Some of the menu choices include chili with kidney and pinto beans, hummus on pita bread, and black bean enchiladas. You could also enjoy nuts in a variety of ways. You can put them on a salad, in a stir-fry, or use them as a topping for steamed vegetables in place of meat or cheese. If you do not eat meat, the USDA has much more information on how to get all the protein you need from a plant-based diet. When choosing the best protein-rich foods to eat, pay attention to the whole nutrient package and remember to select from a variety of protein sources to get all the other essential micronutrients.
Protein Quality
While protein is contained in a wide variety of foods, it differs in quality. High-quality protein contains all the in the proportions needed by the human body. The amino acid profile of different foods is therefore one component of . Foods that contain some of the essential amino acids are called sources, while those that contain all nine essential amino acids are called sources, or high-quality protein sources. Foods that are complete protein sources include animal foods such as milk, cheese, eggs, fish, poultry, and meat, and a few plant foods, such as soy and quinoa. The only animal-based protein that is not complete is gelatin, which is made of the protein, collagen.
Figure 6.18 Complete and Incomplete Protein Sources
Examples of complete protein sources include soy, dairy products, meat, and seafood. Examples of incomplete protein sources include legumes and corn.
Most plant-based foods are deficient in at least one essential amino acid and therefore are incomplete protein sources. For example, grains are usually deficient in the amino acid lysine, and legumes are deficient in methionine or tryptophan. Because grains and legumes are not deficient in the same amino acids they can complement each other in a diet. Incomplete protein foods are called complementary foods because when consumed in tandem they contain all nine essential amino acids at adequate levels. Some examples of complementary protein foods are given in Table 6.4 “Complementing Protein Sources the Vegan Way”. Complementary protein sources do not have to be consumed at the same time—as long as they are consumed within the same day, you will meet your protein needs.
Table 6.4 Complementing Protein Sources the Vegan Way
| Foods | Lacking Amino Acids | Complementary Food | Complementary Menu |
| Legumes | Methionine, tryptophan | Grains, nuts, and seeds | Hummus and whole-wheat pita |
| Grains | Lysine, isoleucine, threonine | Legumes | Cornbread and kidney bean chili |
| Nuts and seeds | Lysine, isoleucine | Legumes | Stir-fried tofu with cashews |
The second component of protein quality is digestibility, as not all protein sources are equally digested. In general, animal-based proteins are completely broken down during the process of digestion, whereas plant-based proteins are not. This is because some proteins are contained in the plant’s fibrous cell walls and these pass through the digestive tract unabsorbed by the body.
Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS)
The PDCAAS is a method adopted by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to determine a food’s protein quality. It is calculated using a formula that incorporates the total amount of amino acids in the food and the amount of protein in the food that is actually digested by humans. The food’s protein quality is then ranked against the foods highest in protein quality. Milk protein, egg whites, whey, and soy all have a ranking of one, the highest ranking. Other foods’ ranks are listed in Table 6.5 “PDCAAS of Various Foods”.
Table 6.5 PDCAAS of Various Foods
| Food | PDCAAS* |
| Milk protein | 1.00 |
| Egg white | 1.00 |
| Whey | 1.00 |
| Soy protein | 1.00 |
| Beef | 0.92 |
| Soybeans | 0.91 |
| Chickpeas | 0.78 |
| Fruits | 0.76 |
| Vegetables | 0.73 |
| Whole wheat | 0.42 |
| *1 is the highest rank, 0 is the lowest |
Protein Needs: Special Considerations
Some groups may need to examine how to meet their protein needs more closely than others. We will take a closer look at the special protein considerations for vegetarians, the elderly, and athletes.
Vegetarians and Vegans
People who follow variations of the vegetarian diet and consume eggs and/or dairy products can meet their protein requirements by consuming adequate amounts of these foods. Vegetarians and vegans can also attain their recommended protein intakes if they give a little more attention to high-quality plant-based protein sources. However, when following a vegetarian diet, the amino acid lysine can be challenging to acquire. Grains, nuts, and seeds are lysine-poor foods, but tofu, soy, quinoa, and pistachios are all good sources of lysine. Following a vegetarian diet and getting the recommended protein intake is also made a little more difficult because the digestibility of plant-based protein sources is lower than the digestibility of animal-based protein.
To begin planning a more plant-based diet, start by finding out which types of food you want to eat and in what amounts you should eat them to ensure that you get the protein you need. The Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee (DGAC) has analyzed how three different, plant-based dietary patterns can meet the recommended dietary guidelines for all nutrients.[2]
The diets are defined in the following manner:
- Plant-based. Fifty percent of protein is obtained from plant foods.
- Lacto-ovo vegetarian. All animal products except eggs and dairy are eliminated.
- Vegan. All animal products are eliminated.
These diets are analyzed and compared to the more common dietary pattern of Americans, which is referred to as the USDA Base Diet. Table 6.6 “Percentage of “Meat and Beans Group” Components in the USDA Base Diet, and Three Vegetarian Variations” and Table 7.7 “Proportions of Milk Products and Calcium-Fortified Soy Products in the Base USDA Patterns and Three Vegetarian Variations” can be used to help determine what percentage of certain foods to eat when following a different dietary pattern. The percentages of foods in the different groups are the proportions consumed by the population, so that, on average, Americans obtain 44.6 percent of their foods in the meat and beans group from meats. If you choose to follow a lacto-ovo vegetarian diet, the meats, poultry, and fish can be replaced by consuming a higher percentage of soy products, nuts, seeds, dry beans, and peas. As an aside, the DGAC notes that these dietary patterns may not exactly align with the typical diet patterns of people in the United States. However, they do say that they can be adapted as a guide to develop a more plant-based diet that does not significantly affect nutrient adequacy.
Table 6.6 Percentage of “Meat and Beans Group” Components in the USDA Base Diet, and Three Vegetarian Variations
| Food Category | Base USDA (%) | Plant-Based (%) | Lacto-Ovo Vegetarian (%) | Vegan (%) |
| Meats | 44.6 | 10.5 | 0 | 0 |
| Poultry | 27.9 | 8.0 | 0 | 0 |
| Fish (high omega-3) | 2.2 | 3.0 | 0 | 0 |
| Fish (low omega-3) | 7.1 | 10.0 | 0 | 0 |
| Eggs | 7.9 | 7.6 | 10.0 | 0 |
| Soy products | 0.9 | 15.0 | 30.0 | 25.0 |
| Nuts and seeds | 9.4 | 20.9 | 35.0 | 40.0 |
| Dry beans and peas | n/a* | 25.0 | 25.0 | 35.0 |
| Total | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
*The dry beans and peas are in the vegetable food group of the base diet.
Source: Vegetarian Food Patterns: Food Pattern Modeling Analysis. US Department of Agriculture. Appendix E-3.3. http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/Publications/DietaryGuidelines/2010/DGAC/Report/AppendixE-3-3-Vegetarian.pdf. Accessed September 28, 2017.
Table 6.7 Proportions of Milk Products and Calcium-Fortified Soy Products in the Base USDA Patterns and Three Vegetarian Variations
| Food Category | Base USDA (%) | Plant-based (%) | Lacto-ovo vegetarian (%) | Vegan (%) |
| Fluid milk | 54.6 | 54.6 | 54.6 | 0 |
| Yogurt | 1.6 | 1.6 | 1.6 | 0 |
| Cheese | 42.7 | 42.7 | 42.7 | 0 |
| Soy milk (w/ calcium) | 1.1 | 1.1 | 1.1 | 67.0 |
| Rice milk (w/ calcium) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 16.0 |
| Tofu (w/ calcium) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 15.0 |
| Soy yogurt | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2.0 |
| Total | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
Source: Vegetarian Food Patterns: Food Pattern Modeling Analysis. US Department of Agriculture. Appendix E-3.3. http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/Publications/DietaryGuidelines/2010/DGAC/Report/AppendixE-3-3-Vegetarian.pdf. Accessed September 28, 2017.
From these analyses the DGAC concluded that the plant-based, lacto-ovo vegetarian, and vegan diets do not significantly affect nutrient adequacy. Additionally, the DGAC states that people who choose to obtain proteins solely from plants should include foods fortified with vitamins B12, D, and calcium. Other nutrients of concern may be omega-3 fatty acids and .
The Elderly
As we age, muscle mass gradually declines. This is a process referred to as . A person is sarcopenic when their amount of muscle tissue is significantly lower than the average value for a healthy person of the same age. A significantly lower muscle mass is associated with weakness, movement disorders, and a generally poor quality of life. It is estimated that about half the US population of men and women above the age of eighty are sarcopenic. A review published in the September 2010 issue of Clinical Intervention in Aging demonstrates that higher intakes (1.2 to 1.5 grams per kilogram of weight per day) of high-quality protein may prevent aging adults from becoming sarcopenic.[3]
Currently, the RDA for protein for elderly persons is the same as that for the rest of the adult population, but several clinical trials are ongoing and are focused on determining the amount of protein in the diet that prevents the significant loss of muscle mass specifically in older adults.
Athletes
Muscle tissue is rich in protein composition and has a very high turnover rate. During exercise, especially when it is performed for longer than two to three hours, muscle tissue is broken down and some of the amino acids are catabolized to fuel muscle contraction. To avert excessive borrowing of amino acids from muscle tissue to synthesize energy during prolonged exercise, protein needs to be obtained from the diet. Intense exercise, such as strength training, stresses muscle tissue so that afterward, the body adapts by building bigger, stronger, and healthier muscle tissue. The body requires protein post-exercise to accomplish this. The IOM does not set different RDAs for protein intakes for athletes, but the AND, the American College of Sports Medicine, and Dietitians of Canada have the following position statements[4]:
Nitrogen balance studies suggest that dietary protein intake necessary to support nitrogen balance in endurance athletes ranges from 1.2 to 1.4 grams per kilogram of body weight per day.
Recommended protein intakes for strength-trained athletes range from approximately 1.2 to 1.7 grams per kilogram of weight per day.
An endurance athlete who weighs 170 pounds should take in 93 to 108 grams of protein per day (170 ÷ 2.2 × 1.2 and 170 ÷ 2.2 × 1.4). On a 3,000- diet, that amount is between 12 and 14 percent of total kilocalories and within the AMDR. There is general scientific agreement that endurance and strength athletes should consume protein from high-quality sources, such as dairy, eggs, lean meats, or soy; however eating an excessive amount of protein at one time does not further stimulate muscle-protein synthesis. Nutrition experts also recommend that athletes consume some protein within one hour after exercise to enhance muscle tissue repair during the recovery phase, but some carbohydrates and water should be consumed as well. The recommended ratio from nutrition experts for exercise-recovery foods is 4 grams of carbohydrates to 1 gram of protein.
Table 6.8 Snacks for Exercise Recovery
| Foods | Protein (g) | Carbohydrates (g) | Calories |
| Whole grain cereal with nonfat milk | 14 | 53 | 260 |
| Medium banana with nonfat milk | 10 | 39 | 191 |
| Power bar | 10 | 43 | 250 |
In response to hard training, a person’s body also adapts by becoming more efficient in metabolizing nutrient fuels both for energy production and building macromolecules. However, this raises another question: if athletes are more efficient at using protein, is it necessary to take in more protein from dietary sources than the average person? There are two scientific schools of thought on this matter. One side believes athletes need more protein and the other thinks the protein requirements of athletes are the same as for nonathletes. There is scientific evidence to support both sides of this debate. The consensus of both sides is that few people exercise at the intensity that makes this debate relevant. It is good to remember that the increased protein intake recommended by the AND, American College of Sports Medicine, and Dietitians of Canada still lies within the AMDR for protein.
Protein Supplements
Protein supplements include powders made from compounds such as whey, soy or amino acids that either come as a powder or in capsules. We have noted that the protein requirements for most people, even those that are active, is not high. Is taking protein supplements ever justified, then? Neither protein nor amino acid supplements have been scientifically proven to improve exercise performance or increase strength. In addition, the average American already consumes more protein than is required. Despite these facts, many highly physically active individuals use protein or amino acid supplements. According to the AND, American College of Sports Medicine, and Dietitians of Canada, “the current evidence indicates that protein and amino acid supplements are no more or no less effective than food when energy is adequate for gaining lean body mass.”[5]
Branched-chain amino acids, such as leucine, are often touted as a way to build muscle tissue and enhance athletic performance. Despite these marketing claims, a review in the June 2005 issue of The Journal of Nutrition shows that most studies that evaluated a variety of exercise types failed to show any performance-enhancing effects of taking branched-chain amino acids.[6]
Moreover, the author of this review claims that high-quality protein foods are a better and cheaper source for branched-chain amino acids and says that a chicken breast (100 grams) contains the equivalent of seven times the amount of branched-chain amino acids as one supplement tablet. This means if you are interested in enhancing exercise performance or building muscle, you do not need to support the $20 billion supplement industry.
Although the evidence for protein and amino acid supplements impacting athletic performance is lacking, there is some scientific evidence that supports consuming high-quality dairy proteins, such as casein and whey, and soy proteins positively influences muscle recovery in response to hard training. If you choose to buy a bucket of whey protein, use it to make a protein shake after an intense workout and do not add more than what is required to obtain 20 to 25 grams of protein. As always, choosing high-quality protein foods will help you build muscle and not empty your wallet as much as buying supplements. Moreover, relying on supplements for extra protein instead of food will not provide you with any of the other essential nutrients. The bottom line is that whether you are an endurance athlete or strength athlete, or just someone who takes Zumba classes, there is very little need to put your money into commercially sold protein and amino acid supplements. The evidence to show that they are superior to regular food in enhancing exercise performance is not sufficient.
What about the numerous protein shakes and protein bars on the market? Are they a good source of dietary protein? Do they help you build muscle or lose weight as marketers claim? These are not such a bad idea for an endurance or strength athlete who has little time to fix a nutritious exercise-recovery snack. However, before you ingest any supplement, do your homework. Read the label, be selective, and don’t use them to replace meals, but rather as exercise-recovery snacks now and then. Some protein bars have a high amount of carbohydrates from added sugars and are not actually the best source for protein, especially if you are not an athlete. Protein bars are nutritionally designed to restore carbohydrates and protein after endurance or strength training; therefore they are not good meal replacements. If you want a low-cost alternative after an intense workout, make yourself a peanut butter sandwich on whole-grain bread and add some sliced banana for less than fifty cents.
Supermarket and health-food store shelves offer an extraordinary number of high-protein shake mixes. While the carbohydrate count is lower now in some of these products than a few years ago, they still contain added fats and sugars. They also cost, on average, more than two dollars per can. If you want more nutritional bang for your buck, make your own shakes from whole foods. Use the AMDRs for macronutrients as a guide to fill up the blender. Your homemade shake can now replace some of the whole foods on your breakfast, lunch, or dinner plate. Unless you are an endurance or strength athlete and consume commercially sold protein bars and shakes only postexercise, these products are not a good dietary source of protein.
Learning Activities
Technology Note: The second edition of the Human Nutrition Open Educational Resource (OER) textbook features interactive learning activities. These activities are available in the web-based textbook and not available in the downloadable versions (EPUB, Digital PDF, Print_PDF, or Open Document).
Learning activities may be used across various mobile devices, however, for the best user experience it is strongly recommended that users complete these activities using a desktop or laptop computer and in Google Chrome.
- Protein: The Bottom Line. Harvard School of Public Health. The Nutrition Source. http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/protein/. Published 2012. Accessed September 30, 2017. ↵
- Jacobs DR, et al. (2009). Food, Plant Food, and Vegetarian Diets in the US Dietary Guidelines: Conclusions of an Expert Panel. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5). http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/89/5/1549S.short. ↵
- Waters DL, et al. (2010). Advantages of Dietary, Exercise-Related, and Therapeutic Interventions to Prevent and Treat Sarcopenia in Adult Patients: An Update. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 5, 259–70. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2938033/?tool=pubmed. Accessed September 28, 2017. ↵
- American College of Sports Medicine, Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, and Dietitians of Canada. (2009). Joint Position Statement: Nutrition and Athletic Performance. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 41(3), 709-31. http://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/fulltext/2009/03000/Nutrition_and_Athletic_Performance.27.aspx. Accessed September 28, 2017. ↵
- American College of Sports Medicine, Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, and Dietitians of Canada. (2009). Joint Position Statement: Nutrition and Athletic Performance. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 41(3), 709-31. http://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/fulltext/2009/03000/Nutrition_and_Athletic_Performance.27.aspx. Accessed September 28, 2017. ↵
- Gleeson, M. (2005). Interrelationship between Physical Activity and Branched-Chain Amino Acids. Journal of Nutrition, 135(6), 1591S–5S. http://jn.nutrition.org/content/135/6/1591S.long. Accessed October 1, 2017. ↵
A class of compounds composed of linked amino acids. They contain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sometimes other atoms in specific configurations.
(Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges) A range of intakes for carbohydrates, fat, and protein expressed as a percentage of total energy intake for normal healthy individuals.
The state in which a person’s nitrogen intake exactly equals the nitrogen losses.
A fat-soluble vitamin that functions as an antioxidant in the body.
An amino acid that cannot be synthesized by the body or synthesized in sufficient quantities to meet the body’s needs.
A measure of how closely the mixture of essential amino acids in a protein matches the body’s need for those amino acids.
Proteins that lack or have limited amounts of one or more essential amino acids.
Proteins that contain all of the essential amino acids in proportions capable of promoting growth when they are the only proteins in the body.
An essential nutrient, needed for the synthesis of the phospholipids, the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, lipid transport and also homocysteine metabolism.
The loss of muscle tissue as a result of aging.
The standard unit of energy used in nutrition; the amount of heat required to raise temperature of 1 kg water 1℃ .